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*
Laboratory for Genetics Research, Department of Physiology, Medical
College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Department of Pediatric Surgery, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The
Netherlands.
Correspondence to Dr. Howard J. Jacob, Human and Molecular Genetics Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI 53226, Phone: 414-456-4887; Fax: 414-456-6516; E-mail: Jacob{at}mcw.edu
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Direct evidence for the involvement of genetic factors in renal impairment has been obtained in various animal models. The Milan normotensive strain rat is more susceptible to renal damage than Milan hypertensive strain rats (5). The Buffalo (BUF) rat develops spontaneous proteinuria and structural renal lesions, and the authors predicted that two autosomal recessive genes were responsible for these traits (6). However, the study that used the fawn-hooded hypertensive (FHH/Eur) rat first demonstrated that susceptibility loci, that are genetically independent of BP, are responsible for hypertension-associated ESRF (7). This strain develops a moderately elevated level of systolic BP (SBP), progressive proteinuria (UPV) mainly consisting of albuminuria (UAV), and focal glomerulosclerosis (FGS) at a relatively young age, leading to premature death as a result of ESRF (8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19). Using a backcross design (FHH/Eur x ACI/NCrEur) F1 x FHH rats, we identified two quantitative trait loci (QTL)—Rf-1, which was independent of BP, and Rf-2—that were responsible for UPV and structural renal damage (7). In addition, we localized a QTL, Bpfh-1, that was partly responsible for the increased SBP level (7). Bpfh-1 maps close to Rf-2 and the SA region, also known to contain an important gene in determining SBP in other crosses of genetic hypertensive rat strains (20,21). However, there was not sufficient genetic power to separate Rf-2 from Bpfh-1 with this backcross design.
More recently, other experimental models and genetic studies have been used to implicate susceptibility genes. A QTL named Pur-1, on rat chromosome 13, was identified in a backcross of BUF and (BUF x Wister Kyoto [WKY])F1 rats (22). Studies in mice indicated that genetic factors were more important than nephron reduction in determining renal damage (23). Additional studies seem to indicate that 8 to 10 interacting genes make up the renal susceptibility for glomerulosclerosis (24).
Taken together, these experimental studies indicate that a substantial number of genetic loci may be involved in determining the susceptibility of the kidney to renal impairment. In the present study, we wanted to expand our knowledge of the susceptibility genes that are responsible for renal failure in the FHH/Eur rat and the complex interactions with BP. To accomplish this goal, we studied 337 male rats from an F2 intercross derived from the FHH/Eur and ACI/NCrEur grandparent strains. A secondary goal was to determine whether there was a genetic basis to the accelerated progressive ESRF after unilateral nephrectomy (16,25), as we had noticed that ACI rats do not develop ESRF after the same procedure.
Here, we replicate the study of Rf-1 and Rf-2 in determining not only the susceptibility to renal damage but also the localization of three additional genes, Rf-3, Rf-4, and Rf-5. In total, these five genes are responsible for approximately 63% of the genetic variation. We also confirmed Bpfh-1 and genetically mapped a second BP locus, Bpfh-2; together, they are responsible for approximately 13% of the total variation in BP. One of the most important discoveries was the complex interaction between the different genes. The data presented here suggest that various combinations of susceptibility genes interact to influence the rate of renal failure progression.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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We studied 337 male F2 rats from an intercross derived from the FHH/Eur and ACI/NCrEur grandparent strains. Female F2 rats were not studied because there was a very different time course for the development of renal damage (26). Breeding and phenotyping of the F2 intercross was completed in Rotterdam. A reciprocal cross design was used, because in preliminary studies, the renal phenotypes showed no correlation with grandparent gender.
Unilateral Nephrectomy
At 5 to 6 wk of age, rats were anesthetized with ethyl ether and the right
kidney was removed after exposure by a mid-line laparotomy and careful
separation from the adrenal gland and associated connective tissue.
Phenotypes
At 8 wk after unilateral nephrectomy (UNX), we determined the levels of
UPV, UAV, residual proteinuria (rUPV = UPV - UAV), urinary kallikrein levels,
urinary osmolality, SBP, and the incidence of FGS in all 337 male F2 progeny.
To collect urine, animals were kept in metabolic cages (Tecniplast Gazzada,
Buguggiate, Italy) and allowed to adapt to the new situation over the weekend.
Urine was then collected during two consecutive 24-h periods. UPV and UAV were
determined colorimetrically using pyrogallol red/molybdate complex
(27) and bromocresol-green
(28), respectively. Both
assays were carried out using an automatic analyzer (ELAN, Eppendorf/Merck,
Darmstadt, Germany).
Because of the platelet storage pool bleeding disorder in the FHH/Eur, SBP was measured by the indirect tail-cuff plethysmography in awake but restrained animals using a semiautomatic system (Model 1279, IITC Life Science, Woodland Hills, CA). Animals were trained by exposing them to the restraint during the week before taking the measurements. For BP determinations, at least three measurements were taken on each of three consecutive days. The mean of these three values was used for analysis.
After the urine collections and the BP measurements were completed, the rats were killed and the kidney and spleen were removed. The spleen was used for extraction of genomic DNA. The kidney was weighed, fixed, and embedded in paraffin. Sections (3 µm thick) were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and with periodic acid-Schiff reagent. The incidence of FGS was scored in at least 50 glomeruli and expressed as the percentage of glomeruli with sclerotic lesions, as described earlier (13,29).
Genotyping and Linkage Analysis
Genomic DNA was extracted from the spleens of the intercross male progeny
by standard methods (30) and
was diluted to 4 ng/ µl stocks in sterile, distilled water. Genotyping with
simple-sequence length polymorphism was performed, essentially, as described
previously (31). On the basis
of existing maps, we selected 418 markers to provide a genetic map with an
expected average intermarker distance of approximately 4 cM and covering the
majority of the genome.
A subgroup of 46 animals, the number of samples able to be run on a single polyacrylamide gel, were chosen for the initial genome-wide scan (all 418 genetic markers). These 46 animals were selected on the basis of calculated expected logarithm of odds (LOD) scores to provide a representative sample covering the extremes for both SBP and UPV (unpublished algorithm). This targeting approach allowed us to build a genetic linkage map for this cross and to provide preliminary QTL for the trait of SBP and UPV with greater efficiency than scanning all markers in all F2 rats (32). When putative QTL were found to exceed predicted LOD score, more rats were genotyped; when the LOD score continued above threshold, all animals were genotyped for the markers flanking the final QTL.
Genetic markers were mapped relative to each other by using the MAPMAKER/QTL computer package (33), using an error detection procedure (34). After the map was constructed, QTL that affected phenotypes were mapped relative to genotypes using the MAPMAKER/QTL software package (32,33). Briefly, the program calculates the most likely phenotypic effect that has genotypes FHH/FHH, FHH/ACI, or ACI/ACI at a putative QTL and then calculates a LOD score that reflects the strength of evidence for the existence of the QTL and the proportion of the total phenotypic variance explained. A LOD score of more than 4.3 indicated significant linkage and a LOD score of between 2.6 and 4.3 was suggestive of linkage (35). To assess the impact of multiple QTL on a particular trait, a second analysis was conducted with the MAPMAKER/QTL software. Briefly, identified QTL are "fixed," removing that portion of the variance that is explained by that locus from the subsequent analysis. The genome is then rescanned to identify additional QTL. In the same manner, phenotypes can be fixed and the genome rescanned to test the effects of one phenotypic trait on another. In addition, residual analyses were performed to test the interaction between traits and the results analyzed as a new trait using MAPMAKER/QTL (33).
Comparative Mapping
To determine the syntenic regions among rat, human, and mouse, we began by
identifying genes in evolutionarily conserved genomic regions among mammalian
species (human, mouse, and rat) that were mapped in rat and mouse and were
listed in at least one database that contained rat genomic data
(http://ratmap.gen.gu.se; http://www.well.ox.ac.uk; http://rgd.mcw.edu).
Conserved regions and evolutionary break points between rat and mouse genomes
were identified using the Mouse Genome Database; the mapped genes served as
anchoring points within the published genetic maps for both species
(http://www.informatics.jax.org). This information was used to define regions
of conserved gene order and evolutionary break points with the human genome,
using mapping information of homologous genes in the human genome available in
the Mouse Genome Database, The Genome Database (http://gdbwww.gdb.org), and
the UniGene set at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). The cytogenetic locations were established on
the basis of mapped genes in the Human Gene Map at NCBI
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genemap98).
Statistical Analyses
Data are presented as mean ± SEM unless stated otherwise. Comparison
of the various phenotypes between different genotype groups was performed by
using ANOVA followed by the Student-Newman-Keuls test to identify the groups
that were different from each other. P < 0.05 was used as an
indication of statistical significance.
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Comparisons of SBP values indicated that the values for F1 were intermediate to those of the hypertensive FHH and the normotensive ACI rat, suggesting an additive mode of inheritance of this phenotype. However, given that the variance in SBP within the F2 was the same as in the F1, we were not sure whether this trait would segregate.
Confirmation of Rf-1, Rf-2, and Bpfh-1
Linkage analysis of the F2 cross revealed evidence of an important gene
locus on chromosome 1, previously designated Rf-1
(Figure 1). The Rf-1
locus showed a maximum LOD score of 16.7 for UPV, 16.9 for UAV, and 8.6 for
FGS, occurring within the 95% confidence interval (D1Rat119 and D1Mit8). The
Rf-1 locus explains 19.6%, 20.5%, and 14.2% of the genetic variance
in UPV, UAV, and FGS, respectively, in the F2 cross. As expected, all three
traits had a recessive mode of inheritance at this locus
(Table 2). The LOD score scans
for UPV and UAV implicate that Rf-1 seems to have two peaks—the
interval between D1Rat119 and D1Mgh12 and the interval between D1Mgh12 and
D1Mit8. Maximum LOD scores are 15.9 and 16.7 for UPV and 16.7 and 16.9 for
UAV, respectively. However, from the analysis the fix command of MAPMAKER, we
could not conclude that these peaks were independent. Peak LOD scores for UPV,
UAV, and FGS all occur in essentially the same location of rat chromosome
1.
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Linkage analysis also validated that Rf-2 (Figure 1) cosegregates with UPV, UAV, and FGS with maximum LOD scores of 5.4, 6.5, and 2.5, respectively, within the interval between D1Wox7 and D1Mgh26. The inheritance pattern is consistent; all three traits are inherited with a recessive mode of inheritance (Table 2).
Figure 1 also shows the LOD plot for SBP, which illustrates suggestive linkage (2.7) at Rf-1 and a suggestive LOD score at Bpfh-1 (LOD score 3.8) between D1Wox6 and D1Mit28. It is apparent from the LOD plot that there is substantial overlap between Rf-2 and Bpfh-1. This degree of overlap was surprising, as we expected to be able to separate these two traits using an intercross design. Furthermore, the suggestive effect of Rf-1 on SBP was not expected, because the backcross data had not shown a LOD peak for SBP greater than 1.0. One explanation of the results is that UNX is having an impact. Comparison of the ACI animals with and without UNX revealed a trend toward an increase in SBP, as well as higher UPV (data not shown), suggesting that UNX increases the interaction between SBP and UPV, obscuring our ability to separate these traits in this cross.
Additional Loci Rf-3, Rf-4, Rf-5, and Bpfh-2
In addition to the confirmation of the already known loci, we found
evidence for three additional QTL that affect UPV, UAV, and FGS. First was a
locus on chromosome 3, D3Mit4 (Rf-3), with LOD scores indicative of
significant linkage for UPV (6.1), UAV (6.5), and FGS (4.0). However, as shown
in Table 2, SBP was not even
suggestive of linkage, despite an apparent significant difference (P
< 0.05) by ANOVA. This discrepant result is easily explained by the need to
increase the level of significance to account for the large number of markers
tested in the genome scan
(35). Rf-4, on
chromosome 14 located around D14Mgh7, showed LOD scores of 4.1 for UPV, 3.7
for UAV, and 2.6 for FGS. Although none of these traits formally exceeds the
4.3 threshold, the UPV and UAV traits are very different from the
histologically based FGS and suggest that these traits are not coincidentally
mapped to the same locus. Rf-5, on chromosome 17 located around
D17Mit12, showed a LOD score of 3.0 for UPV, 2.9 for UAV, and 2.1 for FGS.
Taken together, the five Rf loci are responsible for approximately
63% of the genetic variation in UPV.
At none of these three additional Rf loci was there a LOD score indicative or suggestive for statistically significant linkage with SBP. However, a QTL on chromosome 17, located near D17Rat54 or Bpfh-2, the peak of which is 30 cM (approximately 60 million bp) from the peak of Rf-5, showed a LOD score of 2.6 for SBP, suggestive for linkage. Together, the two Bpfh loci are responsible for approximately 14% of the total variation in SBP. In contrast to Bpfh-1, none of the LOD scores of the renal phenotypes were even suggestive for linkage at the Bpfh-2 locus. There was no interaction between the two loci responsible for BP (data not shown).
Interaction between Rf Loci
In Figure 2A, we plotted
against mean UPV values the number of Rf loci that were homozygous
for FHH. It is obvious that the higher the number of homozygous Rf
loci, the higher the level of UPV. The difference in UPV between those that
possessed none or four to five homozygous Rf loci that were
homozygous for FHH is approximately 35 mg/d per 100 g body wt (approximately
105 mg/d). These data suggest that ESRF in the FHH required more than three
loci, a threshold effect. This was not anticipated, as Rf-1 has
previously been shown to be the major gene responsible for ESRF
(7). We reanalyzed the impact
of Rf-1 by plotting the number of Rf loci that were
homozygous for FHH versus UPV, while separating combinations with or
without Rf-1 that were homozygous for FHH. The result is depicted in
Figure 2B. Clearly, having
Rf-1 has a major impact on the development of UPV; however, these
data suggest that there may be an interaction among the various loci.
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Figure 3A-D,3E-J shows the interactions between two loci. If there were no interaction between the loci, then the slopes of the lines would be parallel and any increase would be due to the additive effect of the two loci. Figure 3, A through D, illustrates the effect of Rf-1 plus one of the other Rf loci. In all combinations with Rf-1, there seems to be an interaction with Rf-1 resulting in a marked increase in the level of UPV as Rf-1 goes from homozygous for ACI to homozygous for FHH. Furthermore, these interactions seem to be additive. In contrast, Rf-2 x Rf-3 (Figure 3E) shows an interaction only when both loci are homozygous for FHH. With the exception of Rf-2 x Rf-5, there seems to be two locus interactions, albeit at a lower level than with Rf-1 (Figure 3, E through J). Collectively, these data demonstrate complex interactions between the loci that will require additional investigation.
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Synteny between Rat Rf Loci and Human Chromosomal Regions
Localization of the chromosomal regions that contain susceptibility genes
is only the beginning of a long road that leads to the identification of the
individual genes. Gene identification in animal models may be helpful in the
search for susceptibility genes in human ESRD
(36). Genetic homology between
rats and humans provides a powerful tool to translate the experimental
findings. The comparative mapping of genes in different species has made
considerable progress on the basis of the delineation of contiguous conserved
syntenic regions between different species. Although still insufficiently
detailed, the location of the human regions that are homologous to the various
rat chromosomal regions that carry the Rf genes can already be
outlined
(37,38).
In Table 3, we present the
locations of these homologous regions, comparing rat, mouse, and human.
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Discussion |
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In addition, the large F2 intercross increased our chances of detecting genetic loci that make minor contributions to the hypertension phenotype. Thus, we could confirm the presence of a suggestive QTL for SBP at the previously reported Bpfh-1 locus on rat chromosome 1 and another suggestive QTL, Bpfh-2, on chromosome 17. As in the backcross, the relationship between Bpfh-1 and Rf-2 is still unclear. The most likely positions for the two loci are separated by approximately 15.6 cM, which is not far enough to conclude that they segregate independent of each other. Furthermore, the use of UNX may have obscured our ability to separate Bpfh-1 and Rf-2. Generally, it is desirable to have the linkage of a chromosomal location to the phenotypic trait supported by a LOD score that is 4.3 or higher (35). The LOD score for Bpfh-1, itself, demonstrates that the evidence for linkage is only suggestive. However, it has been replicated, and the proximity of Bpfh-1 to a region that cosegregates with BP in other crosses of genetic hypertensive rat strains (20,21) allows us to be confident of the presence of a BP gene on Bpfh-1. Similarly, the LOD score for Bpfh-2, at the locus of D17rat54, was suggestive only for linkage. At the Hith locus on rat chromosome17, Gu et al. (39) demonstrated a suggestive QTL for BP in a LEW x SHR cross on an 8% NaCl diet. We are, as yet, unable to confirm that Bpfh-2 reflects the same QTL.
Susceptibility for the development of ESRD in rat models reported to date has a recessive mode of inheritance. Here, we demonstrated that even after UNX, F1 rats do not develop overt UPV, UAV, or FGS (Table 1). A recessive mode of inheritance is also indicated in the first-generation hybrids of the Milan rat strains (40). In a backcross of BUF x F1(BUF x ACI) and BUF x F1(BUF x WKY) rats, the inheritance pattern of albuminuria could be explained by the presence of at least two recessive genes (6), a QTL for one of which has been recently localized on rat chromosome 13 in the BUF x F1(BUF x WKY) backcross (22). The same inheritance pattern holds true for mice. It has been reported that spontaneous development of glomerulosclerosis is inherited in a recessive fashion, involving at least 8 to 10 loci (24). Taken together, these studies in experimental models indicate that the genetics of progressive renal damage is extremely complex, involving a substantial number of genes.
Localization of the chromosomal regions that contain susceptibility genes is only the beginning of a long road that leads to the identification of the individual genes. Gene identification is essential for further understanding of the function of genes and the pathway by which the mutated genes may result in an increased susceptibility to renal damage. A strategy to reach these goals has been outlined (41). The first step requires the generation of several strains of congenic rats, each carrying one of the Rf loci of the FHH strain on the ACI background. These strains are essential for the positional cloning of the various Rf genes but will also be used to determine whether and how each of the Rf loci influences the development of renal damage. In each of the strains that carry a single locus, it can be determined whether a single Rf gene is sufficient to increase renal susceptibility to UNX or to increase systemic BP. Simultaneously, studying the renal physiology of the congenic strains can unravel potential pathways that may explain an enhanced susceptibility and may, thus, be helpful in the gene identification studies.
In addition, complex gene—gene interactions should be revealed, as well as the interactions of the genes with environmental factors known to influence the progression of renal failure, such as hypertension, diabetes, renal mass reduction, protein intake, and so forth. Analyses of the F2 cross already indicate that different combinations of Rf loci enhance renal susceptibility. However, detailed studies can be obtained only by using congenics that carry two, three, four, or all five Rf loci concurrently. Ideally, the Rf loci should be transferred from FHH to a renal-resistant strain that is either normotensive, such as ACI, or hypertensive, such as SHR; as well, the Rf loci should be serially replaced on the FHH background. In the case of congenic normotensive rats on the ACI background, susceptibility to hypertension can be studied by raising BP with NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester. We previously reported that this is a very attractive and efficient way to uncover increased renal susceptibility in rats (29,42).
Gene identification in animal models may be helpful in the search for susceptibility genes in human ESRD (36). Genetic homology between rats and humans provides a powerful tool for translation of experimental findings. The comparative mapping of genes in different species has made considerable progress. Although still being developed, the location of the human regions that are syntenic to the various rat chromosomal regions that carry the Rf genes can be roughly outlined (37,38) (Table 3). It has been suggested that the genes of human chromosome 19q13 may be homologous with the Rf-1 gene (22). This, however, is not in accordance with our present knowledge of the rat-human genetic homology maps. As indicated in Table 3, the rat region that carries Rf-1 corresponds with mouse chromosome 19 and human chromosome 10q.
Recently, Yu et al. (43) examined the linkage between ESRD and markers on human chromosome 10q, the area homologous to the rat Rf-1 region. They reported that no evidence for linkage was found in African-American sibling pairs concordant for non—insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus—associated nephropathy or with nondiabetic causes of ESRD; however, they did not have enough power to exclude the region either. Although a total of 129 sibling pairs were studied, the number is still relatively small, because it actually consisted of 58 diabetic and 71 nondiabetic sibling pairs. Using an even smaller number of sibling pairs, the same group previously reported negative results for linkage with loci of the reninangiotensin axis, i.e., AGTR1, AGT, REN, and ACE, and with the glandular kallikrein gene (44), as well as genes for growth factors and cytokines (45).
The number of sibling pairs required to detect linkage depends substantially on the relative risk determined by the ratio of the prevalence of the disease in sibling pairs divided by the prevalence of the disease in the general population. Thus, for polygenic disease with a moderate relative risk like ESRD, a larger number of sibling pairs are needed (46). The number of sibling pairs studied in the various reports of Freedman and colleagues (43,44,45,46) may have been too small to detect genetic linkage. An additional problem is associated with genetic heterogeneity when several genes influence the trait. Thus, the gene effect is not constant, detectable, or even present in all individuals (46,47,48). For the Rf-1 region, in advance of identifying the gene in the rat, we would predict that a more efficient strategy would be to use a case-control study and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) to test the entire region of Rf-1 (36). On the basis of the rat data, these studies should be carried out in patients with hypertension-associated ESRD and these cases contrasted to hypertensive patients without renal disease while controlling for population stratification.
A final comment on the possibilities of successfully identifying genes that influence renal susceptibility relates to the relative lack of understanding of the pathways involved in progressive renal damage. This is in sharp contrast to hypertension, for which numerous BP regulating systems have been identified at the molecular level. Consequently, in the genetic analysis of hypertension, a substantial number of candidate genes can be easily generated. However, even in hypertension, with the exception of rare monogenic forms, little is known about the genetics of more complex human essential hypertension or genetic hypertension in rats. Causative gene mutations have not yet been identified. Because knowledge of the molecular basis of progressive renal damage is virtually absent, molecular genetic strategies offer the prospects of helping to unravel the disease process.
In conclusion, by studying the genetics of BP and renal damage in the FHH rat, we confirmed the roles of Rf-1, Rf-2, and Bpfh-1; in addition, Rf-3, Rf-4, Rf-5, and Bpfh-2 were identified. Rf-1 acts through a mechanism that is independent of BP and has a prominent additive effect on other Rf loci. The findings may be relevant for the differences in susceptibility for the development of ESRF in humans, but the translation to human and its interpretation are still very complex and speculative and require additional studies. Our results demonstrate that searching for gene— gene interactions may be required for unraveling the genetic basis of ESRF.
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Acknowledgments |
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The authors thank C. Luhrman-Schlomski, J. Mahabier, I.M. Hekking-Weyma, M. van Aken, A.P. Boijmans, and C. Peekstok at EUR and Dr. S. Twigger and K. Choate at MCW for their excellent assistance.
Parts of the studies were presented at the 31st Annual Meeting of the American Society of Nephrology, Philadelphia (October 25 to 28, 1998) and at the 59th Scientific Meeting of the Dutch Society of Nephrology, Leiden, The Netherlands (January 17, 1998) and have been printed in abstract form (J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 394A, 1998, and Kidney Int 55: 1167, 1999).
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). With
Rf-1, number 1 means Rf-1 only, 2 means Rf-1 plus
one of the other four loci, 3 means Rf-1 plus two other loci, etc.
Without Rf-1, number 1 means one Rf locus homozygous for FHH
with Rf-1 being excluded, 2 means two Rf loci homozygous FHH
again excluding Rf-1, etc. The highest possible number without
Rf-1 is 4, because five homozygous Rf loci will
automatically include Rf-1. The data represented are not continuous.
Data are mean ± SEM for (n) rats.
,
FHH/FHH.