Skip to main content

Main menu

  • Home
  • Content
    • Published Ahead of Print
    • Current Issue
    • Article Collections
    • JASN Podcasts
    • Archives
    • Saved Searches
    • ASN Meeting Abstracts
  • Authors
    • Submit a Manuscript
    • Author Resources
  • Editorial Team
  • Subscriptions
  • More
    • About JASN
    • Alerts
    • Advertising
    • Editorial Fellowship Team
    • Feedback
    • Reprints
    • Impact Factor
    • Editorial Fellowship Application Process
  • ASN Kidney News
  • Other
    • CJASN
    • Kidney360
    • Kidney News Online
    • American Society of Nephrology

User menu

  • Subscribe
  • My alerts
  • Log in
  • My Cart

Search

  • Advanced search
American Society of Nephrology
  • Other
    • CJASN
    • Kidney360
    • Kidney News Online
    • American Society of Nephrology
  • Subscribe
  • My alerts
  • Log in
  • My Cart
Advertisement
American Society of Nephrology

Advanced Search

  • Home
  • Content
    • Published Ahead of Print
    • Current Issue
    • Article Collections
    • JASN Podcasts
    • Archives
    • Saved Searches
    • ASN Meeting Abstracts
  • Authors
    • Submit a Manuscript
    • Author Resources
  • Editorial Team
  • Subscriptions
  • More
    • About JASN
    • Alerts
    • Advertising
    • Editorial Fellowship Team
    • Feedback
    • Reprints
    • Impact Factor
    • Editorial Fellowship Application Process
  • ASN Kidney News
  • Follow JASN on Twitter
  • Visit ASN on Facebook
  • Follow JASN on RSS
  • Community Forum
Up Front MattersBrief Reviews
You have accessRestricted Access

The Current State of Peritoneal Dialysis

Rajnish Mehrotra, Olivier Devuyst, Simon J. Davies and David W. Johnson
JASN November 2016, 27 (11) 3238-3252; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2016010112
Rajnish Mehrotra
*Kidney Research Institute and
†Harborview Medical Center, Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington;
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
Olivier Devuyst
‡Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland;
§Division of Nephrology, Université Catholique de Louvain Medical School, Brussels, Belgium;
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
Simon J. Davies
‖Department of Nephrology, Keele University, Staffordshire, United Kingdom; and
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
David W. Johnson
¶Department of Nephrology, Division of Medicine, Princess Alexandra Hospital, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • Article
  • Figures & Data Supps
  • Info & Metrics
  • View PDF
Loading

Abstract

Technical innovations in peritoneal dialysis (PD), now used widely for the long-term treatment of ESRD, have significantly reduced therapy-related complications, allowing patients to be maintained on PD for longer periods. Indeed, the survival rate for patients treated with PD is now equivalent to that with in-center hemodialysis. In parallel, changes in public policy have spurred an unprecedented expansion in the use of PD in many parts of the world. Meanwhile, our improved understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in solute and water transport across the peritoneum and of the pathobiology of structural and functional changes in the peritoneum with long-term PD has provided new targets for improving efficiency and for intervention. As with hemodialysis, almost half of all deaths on PD occur because of cardiovascular events, and there is great interest in identifying modality-specific factors contributing to these events. Notably, tremendous progress has been made in developing interventions that substantially reduce the risk of PD-related peritonitis. Yet the gains have been unequal among individual centers, primarily because of unequal clinical application of knowledge gained from research. The work to date has further highlighted the areas in need of innovation as we continue to strive to improve the health and outcomes of patients treated with PD.

  • peritoneal membrane
  • peritoneal dialysis
  • end-stage renal disease
  • cardiovascular disease
  • Life-threatening dialysis complications

The first attempt to use the human peritoneum to dialyze uremic retention solutes was made almost 100 years ago.1 Over the next five decades, the therapy gradually evolved with an expansion in our understanding of solute and water kinetics that allowed for successful application of this mode of dialysis to AKI and ESRD.2–10 This, in addition to the development of the indwelling catheter that provided access to the peritoneal cavity at will and standardization of the composition of dextrose-based dialysate culminated in the introduction of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis in 1976 (Figure 1).11–13 This was followed by changes in connectology to reduce the risk of infections, the introduction of volumetric cyclers, and several alternatives to conventional glucose-based peritoneal dialysis (PD) solutions.13–16 In this review, we highlight the major developments in the application of PD for the treatment of ESRD.

Figure 1.
  • Download figure
  • Open in new tab
  • Download powerpoint
Figure 1.

Major landmarks in the development of PD as a treatment for ESRD (1923–1978).

Utilization and Outcomes with PD

The early experience with PD raised numerous concerns about whether the therapy was a viable alternative to in-center hemodialysis (HD) for the long-term treatment of ESRD. These included but were not limited to high risk of infections, inadequate clearance of small solutes, and deterioration of peritoneal health resulting in ultrafiltration failure, which together led to shorter time on therapy and higher risk for death compared with in-center HD.13,17–19 This led a leading nephrologist to retort in the 1980s that PD is a “second-class therapy for second-class patients by second-class doctors.” In part driven by these concerns, starting from the mid-1990s the proportion of patients with ESRD treated with PD progressively declined in many parts of the world.20,21

Yet, the greatest improvements in the clinical application of PD occurred at the same time as a progressively smaller proportion of patients were utilizing the therapy. In the decade starting from the mid-1990s, there was a significantly larger reduction in risk of death for patients starting with PD around the world than for those undergoing in-center HD (Table 1).22–29 As a result, virtually all studies indicate PD and in-center HD now provide similar short- (1- or 2-year) or long-term (up to 5 years) survival (Table 1).23–25,29–31 Furthermore, there has been a significant reduction in risk of patients treated with PD transferring to in-center HD in the United States, indicating a lower risk of therapy-related complications.32 These improvements have significant implications as they allow patients to receive treatment with an RRT best suited to their values, expectations, and lifestyles, and allow nations the flexibility to incentivize dialysis modalities that allow them to offer cost-effective treatment given increasing budgetary constraints.

View this table:
  • View inline
  • View popup
Table 1.

Summary of studies from around the world demonstrating greater reductions in risk for death in patients treated with PD compared with in-center HD

Public Policy Changes to Increase PD Utilization

The relative costs of HD and PD vary around the world.33 In most developed countries and many developing countries societal costs with PD are lower providing impetus to these jurisdictions to enact public policy that promotes the use of a cheaper therapy.33 This is important as it has long been recognized that nonmedical factors, including reimbursement, are the primary determinants of the proportion of ESRD patients treated with PD in any region of the world.34,35 With a backdrop provided by recent studies that PD provides equivalent survival to in-center HD, several countries around the world have introduced changes to increase PD utilization to leverage its lower costs to the health system.36 In the United States, an expanded prospective payment system became effective in 2011, which includes the cost of parenteral dialysis-related medications in capitated payments made for each dialysis treatment.37,38 Because PD patients require a significantly lower dose of erythropoiesis stimulating agents to achieve any given hemoglobin level, this policy change offers a significant financial incentive to a greater use of PD.39 In Thailand, the government adopted a “PD-First” approach in 2008 as part of its universal health coverage scheme, as in Hong Kong, under the aegis of which dialysis services will be paid for only if the patient is treated with PD, given its lower cost.40 Finally, China has been rapidly expanding access to RRT for its population and has a policy that encourages the use of PD without mandating it.36 Each of these three countries has seen an unprecedented expansion in the use of PD. The growth in the United States has been so rapid (Figures 2, and 3) that the dominant manufacturer was not able to increase the supply of dialysate to meet the increasing demand leading to rationing of solutions in 2014.41 The shortage has abated but has not been completely eliminated. With increasing use of PD, it is likely that the patient census of individual facilities in such countries will become larger which in turn is associated with longer time for patients on PD because of reduced transfer to in-center HD.

Figure 2.
  • Download figure
  • Open in new tab
  • Download powerpoint
Figure 2.

Secular trends in the number of patients treated with PD in the United States (1996–2013). (A) The number of patients treated with PD by 90 day of start of maintenance dialysis; (B) Point prevalent counts of the number of patients treated with PD as of December 31 of each calendar year.

Figure 3.
  • Download figure
  • Open in new tab
  • Download powerpoint
Figure 3.

Secular trends in the proportion of patients undergoing maintenance dialysis treated with PD in the United States (1996–2013). The blue line represents the proportion of all patients undergoing maintenance dialysis treated with PD 90 days from the date of first dialysis and the red line represents the proportion of all patients undergoing maintenance dialysis on December 31 of any calendar year.

Rethinking Care Delivery to Increase Dialysis Treatment Options for Patients

An important barrier to a greater use of PD is that many patients with ESRD are unaware that dialysis can be done at home.42,43 Conversely, educating patients about treatment options is associated with a significantly higher use of PD even among patients who start dialysis without prior care with a nephrologist.44–46 Even when practices make comprehensive modality education programs available, many patients start RRT with little or no prior care by a nephrologist. These late-referred patients invariably start treatment with in-center HD with a central venous catheter.47,48 Even though “urgent-start” PD has been performed for decades, a growing number of centers around the world have now developed these programs both to increase the use of PD and reduce the proportion of patients that start dialysis with a central venous catheter.49–57 Successful implementation of urgent-start PD requires the ability to (1) educate late-referred patients on short notice about treatment options; (2) place PD catheters in a timely manner; and (3) offer intermittent PD in a hospital or dialysis facility up until the patient can be trained to perform treatments safely at home.58 A large number of case-series have reported successful implementation of urgent-start PD without an increase in incidence of leaks or other therapy-related mechanical complications.49–57

The elderly or the disabled is another group of patients that have significantly lower use of PD, even though many such patients would prefer treatment at home.59 Many programs have long used family members to help patients with PD.60 Several countries have extended this concept to include a visiting nurse to help patients with PD at home.59,61–64 Some of these patients require assistance only for a short period of time.63 Observational studies suggest that patients undergoing assisted PD have similar rates of bacterial peritonitis as with self-care PD and similar patient-reported outcomes and hospitalization as with in-center HD.61,64,65

Finally, racial/ethnic minorities in the United States have a significantly lower use of home-based dialysis therapies.66 It is imperative to further study this to ensure all patients have equal access to all dialysis modalities without regard to their race/ethnicity.

Improved Understanding of Peritoneal Physiology and Pathophysiology

The primary goal of dialysis is to remove water and uremic solutes, and the effectiveness of their removal is an important determinant of outcomes of patients treated with PD.67,68 Recent studies have expanded our understanding of solute and water transport processes across the peritoneum some of which could be leveraged for increasing the efficiency of PD.

Aquaporins in the Peritoneum

The water channel aquaporin-1 (AQP1) is constitutively expressed in endothelial cells lining peritoneal capillaries.69 It is a member of a highly conserved family of water channels that are organized as homotetramers, with each monomer containing a central pore that facilitates the movement of water across the lipidic membranes.70 The deletion of AQP1 in mice results in 50% decrease in net cumulative ultrafiltration, and abolition of sodium sieving.71,72 Indeed, glucose is effective as an osmotic agent because of the presence of the ultrasmall pore materialized by AQP1 in peritoneal endothelial cells.73 Investigators are currently examining AQP1 as a therapeutic target to increase ultrafiltration with PD. High-dose dexamethasone increases AQP1 expression in peritoneal capillaries of rodents resulting in enhanced free-water transport and ultrafiltration.74 Steroids may be efficacious in humans as illustrated by comparing ultrafiltration in patients before and after kidney transplantation.75 Another potential agent is an arylsulfonamide, AqF026, the first pharmacologic agonist of AQP1 that interacts with an intracellular loop involved in the gating of the channel.76 It enhances AQP1-mediated water transport and net ultrafiltration in rodents. These two examples give hope for the possibility of developing pharmacologic therapies targeting AQP1 to enhance ultrafiltration with PD.

Intraperitoneal Inflammation

There is increasing evidence that differences in chronic intraperitoneal inflammation, particularly IL-6 production by mesothelial and resident cells in the peritoneum, are primarily associated with differences in peritoneal solute transfer rate, which are in turn strongly associated with PD clinical outcomes.67,68,77–80 Consistent with this, genetic variants associated with higher IL-6 production are associated with higher peritoneal solute transfer rate.81,82

In addition to chronic inflammation, episodes of peritonitis are associated with acute increases in intraperitoneal inflammation resulting in higher peritoneal solute transfer rates and lower ultrafiltration.83 Studies in rodents suggest that locally released vasoactive substances, particularly nitric oxide, may mediate the increase in peritoneal solute transfer rate.84–86 Pharmacologic inhibition or genetic deletion of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase significantly attenuates intraperitoneal inflammation in animals with peritonitis and the associated change in peritoneal solute transfer rate and ultrafiltration.85

These findings point to potential therapeutic targets to be explored in the future to improve PD efficiency.

Structural and Functional Changes over Time

Prolonged treatment with PD is associated with structural (fibrosis, angiogenesis, hyalinizing vasculopathy) and functional (increased peritoneal solute transfer rate, ultrafiltration failure) changes.87 One of the most serious complications of long-term PD is encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis, a rare complication characterized by an exaggerated fibrogenic response of the peritoneum.88,89 Studies suggest that peritoneal ultrafiltration capacity decreases before the clinical manifestation of encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis and that the primary mechanism is reduction in osmotic conductance (ultrafiltration volume for a given osmotic gradient) that is related to the increased collagen fiber density in the interstitium.88,90,91

The mechanisms of peritoneal fibrosis remain debated. Progressive fibrosis is characterized by the release of growth factors such as TGF-β1, resulting in the accumulation of α-smooth muscle actin myofibroblasts in the peritoneum.87,92 Several in vitro and in vivo studies indicated that myofibroblasts are derived from mesothelial cells through epithelial-mesenchymal transition,93–96 in which epithelial cells lose their polarity and differentiation, gain migratory and invasive properties, and become pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells that differentiate into fibroblasts. Consistent with studies questioning the role of epithelial-mesenchymal transition in renal fibrosis,97–99 Chen et al.100 recently applied lineage-tracing technology in several models of peritoneal fibrosis and showed that submesothelial fibroblasts – and not mesothelial cells via epithelial-mesenchymal transition – are the major precursors of myofibroblasts.

These improvements in our understanding of the mechanisms involved in changes in the peritoneum with long-term PD hold hope that future therapies may allow us to ameliorate them. As an example, post hoc analysis of a recent randomized controlled trial suggests that patients treated with biocompatible PD solutions may not have the increase in peritoneal solute transfer rate after the first month of therapy, as seen with conventional PD solutions.101,102 Observational studies have also raised the possibility that inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system may ameliorate change in peritoneal solute transfer capacity over time103; the beneficial effect of these drug classes, however, has not been tested in clinical trials.

Cardiovascular Risk Modification in PD Patients

About 40%–60% of deaths in PD patients are associated with cardiovascular events104; even more can be considered indirectly related if the link between cardiovascular disease, inflammation and frailty leading to debilitation, transfer to HD, and treatment withdrawal are considered.79,105–107 Registry analyses suggest that PD patients may have a higher risk of myocardial infarction compared with HD.104,108 This section is focused on nonconventional cardiovascular risk factors, with emphasis on modification by treatment with PD (Figure 4). A more comprehensive evaluation of evidence of cardiovascular risk factors is included in recently published clinical practice guidelines.109,110

Figure 4.
  • Download figure
  • Open in new tab
  • Download powerpoint
Figure 4.

Overview of interrelationships between modality-specific factors that may contribute to the cardiovascular risk of patients undergoing PD.

Importance of Metabolic Risk Factors and the Role of Glucose-Sparing Regimens

The most obvious risk factors exacerbated by PD are metabolic, related to systemic glucose absorption from the dialysate. They include worsening dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome, and weight gain.111–117 Yet, the evidence that they translate into significantly worse outcomes for PD patients is variable. For example, the greater weight gain with PD compared with HD is unclear. Patients gain weight after starting PD, and this is closely mirrored by an increase in total cholesterol and fat mass. However, in many circumstances this weight gain reflects catch-up of the predialysis loss.111,118 This also happens with HD and a large study found that the risk of significant weight gain is lower with PD.118 For patients undergoing maintenance dialysis, the greater nutritional risk is being underweight and in this context additional calories from the dialysate could be advantageous119,120; what is less clear is whether the lower death risk with larger body size consistently observed among patients undergoing HD is seen with PD.121 This may be influenced by other regional factors as the risk or benefit of being obese in PD varies between national registries, being harmful in Australasia and neutral or advantageous in the United States and Brazil.118,122–124

One potential shortcoming of the registry analyses is the use of body mass index as surrogate for obesity which may underestimate fat gain in PD patients; the preferred use of waist circumference in defining metabolic syndrome is also hard to validate in PD patients in whom abdominal girth measurements are influenced by intra-abdominal fluid. Equally, measuring insulin resistance in a patient who is never fasting because of continuous glucose absorption presents problems. This may explain the inconsistencies between studies linking metabolic syndrome in PD to worse outcomes.114,125,126 Again the role of treatment modality varies, as new-onset diabetes is less common in Chinese patients treated with PD than HD, and in either dialysis modality much less than for newly transplanted patients.127,128 What at first sight may be an obvious modality-specific risk factor for cardiovascular disease, i.e., systemic glucose absorption, turns out to be much less clear.

Regardless of these inconsistencies, there are now several studies showing that these risk factors are modifiable, although none of the trials are sufficiently powered to address hard endpoints. Glucose sparing solutions have been developed, such as amino acid and icodextrin. In nonpatients with diabetes, the colloid agent icodextrin used in the long exchange prevents nonfluid (presumed fat) weight gain and improves insulin resistance.129–131 In patients with diabetes, including when in combination with amino acid solutions, icodextrin improves glycemic control and lipid profiles.132–134 Poor glycemic control is associated with worse outcomes in diabetic PD patients.135,136

Given the concern of increased risk of myocardial infarction in patients receiving PD the lack of evidence that statins can reduce this is disappointing.137 Interestingly, a prespecified subgroup analysis of the Study of Heart and Renal Protection study, the only trial to include PD patients, found a nonsignificant but potentially important risk reduction suggesting that these patients may be different and worthy of further investigation.138

Residual Kidney Function

Residual kidney function is strongly associated with better survival in studies of both PD and HD.139,140 In the Canada-USA study every 250 ml higher urine volume per day translated into a 36% lower 2-year mortality.139 Evidence suggests that PD is associated with better preservation of residual kidney function compared with HD, typical reported rates of loss in clearance per month being 0.25–0.28 and 0.30–0.40 ml/min per 1.73 m2, respectively141–146; the mechanism is still debated but is likely to be in part the avoidance of intravascular volume depletion which occurs more frequently with HD.147 Cohort studies and controlled trials find that in patients undergoing PD the rate of loss of kidney function could be slowed with avoidance of volume depletion, use of blockers of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, and the use of diuretics (urine volume and sodium loss).145,146,148,149

The most studied intervention to maintain residual kidney function is the use of biocompatible solutions. Biocompatible solutions avoid the need for sterilizing glucose at higher pH so limiting the formation of glucose degradation products and thus avoiding their associated toxicity. The Balance, Australia and New Zealand study demonstrated that these solutions delay the time to anuria, and slow the rate of loss of clearance from 0.28 to 0.22 ml/min per 1.73 m2 per month.150 Subsequent meta-analyses have confirmed this observation.143,151

Volume Management

As already alluded to, volume depletion puts residual kidney function at risk but equally volume excess is detrimental. Hypertension in patients healthy enough to be wait-listed for transplant is associated with worse survival and there is a growing body of evidence from bioimpedance data that over-hydration predicts worse survival.152,153 In anuric patients the ultrafiltration performance of the peritoneum becomes critical and daily net fluid removal of <750–1000 ml is associated with higher mortality.154,155 There is evidence that automated PD and icodextrin use can improve the risks associated with fast peritoneal solute transfer rate.68,156,157

The fluid status of PD patients is no worse on average than for HD patients predialysis, but that the distribution of fluid is likely different.147 Hypoalbuminaemia is more common with PD due to the additional peritoneal protein losses and is a reflection of their largely independent systemic and intraperitoneal inflammatory states.79,158 Intravascular plasma volume is typically normal in PD, even when excess fluid associated with hypoalbuminemia is present, indicating it being in the interstitial compartment.159 This means that normalizing fluid status runs the risk of plasma volume depletion, hypotension, and faster loss of residual kidney function. A recent trial using bioimpedance to support clinical decision making found that fluid status was very stable in PD patients with residual kidney function whereas the challenge in anuric patients was how to reduce volume status so that extracellular fluid was reduced in parallel with the loss in lean body tissue.160 The only intervention that achieved this was an increase in glucose prescription. As things stand, clinicians need to exercise caution and clinical judgment in setting target weights.

Peritonitis

Peritonitis continues to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality in PD patients globally.104,161,162 Depending on the underlying causative organism, PD-related peritonitis is complicated by relapse in 3%–20% (14% overall), catheter removal in 10%–88% (22% overall), permanent HD transfer in 9%–74% (18% overall), and death in 0.9%–8.6% (2%–6% overall) of cases.163–174 After a single episode of peritonitis, the risks of death due to infection, cardiovascular disease, and dialysis withdrawal are markedly increased in the first month and continue to remain significantly elevated for up to 6 months afterward.106 Severe and/or repeated peritonitis episodes may also culminate in sufficient damage that precludes successful PD and, rarely, encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis.175,176 The complication imposes a heavy financial burden on the health care system with one health economics analysis estimating the average cost of peritonitis-related hospitalization to be of the order of $3100.177 Finally, concern about the risk of PD peritonitis represents one of the most important patient-related barriers to the greater uptake of PD.178

Nevertheless, peritonitis is a preventable condition and there is abundant evidence that infection rates around the world have decreased considerably over time.179 Single center observational studies from different parts of the world, as well as multinational national registry studies have reported that the rates of PD-related infections have steadily decreased over the last 10–20 years.161,180–185 Although this reduction has been most apparent for Gram-positive infections, significant reductions have also been reported for Gram-negative peritonitis.161,180–185 These reductions have been variously attributed to the use of twin bag disconnection systems, implementation of mupirocin chemoprophylaxis protocols, topical exit site application of gentamicin, coprescription of nystatin or fluconazole with antibiotic therapy, improved training of PD patients and/or staff, and better identification and targeting of peritonitis risk factors.180,186–193 Within Australia, country-wide PD-related peritonitis rates fell significantly by 37% over a 5-year period from 0.62 episodes per patient-year in 2008 to 0.39 episodes per patient-year in 2013 after a concerted, multidisciplinary and multipronged national peritonitis reduction campaign involving quarterly audit and feedback of individual unit peritonitis rates, prioritization of peritonitis prevention trials by the Australasian Kidney Trials Network, updating national clinical practice guidelines on peritonitis, launching peritonitis guideline implementation projects, publishing of a call to action paper, establishment of a PD Academy to provide PD training to junior nephrologists and nursing staff, and development of a Home Dialysis Network to support home dialysis patients (http://homedialysis.org.au/).194–199

Despite these improvements, there remains a wide and unacceptable variation in reported rates from different countries, ranging from 0.06 episodes/year in Taiwan to 1.66 episodes/year in Israel.200 Furthermore, up to 20-fold variation in peritonitis rates has been reported between centers within individual countries, such as Australia (Figure 5),174,194 Austria,201 Scotland,202 and the United Kingdom.203 The sources of these variations have not been adequately investigated but may relate to center-related factors, such as unit size, topical antibiotic prophylaxis, or PD training practices.161,192,201,202,204,205 A previous national survey found highly variable and generally poor compliance of centers with clinical practice guidelines for prevention of peritonitis.206 More recently, an Australia and New Zealand Dialysis and Transplantation Registry analysis found that the wide variation in peritonitis rates across Australian dialysis centers was decreased by 16% after adjustment for patient characteristics (e.g., demographics, comorbidities), and was reduced by a further 34% after accounting for a limited number of center-level characteristics, such as unit size, proportion of dialysis patients treated with PD, use of antifungal chemoprophylaxis, icodextrin use, performance of peritoneal equilibration tests, cycler use, and propensity to admit patients with PD-related peritonitis to hospital.207 This observation suggests that center practices play a dominant role in mediating between-center variation in peritonitis rates. Similarly, unacceptable variations in the outcomes of peritonitis treatment have been significantly associated with observed deviations in practice from clinical practice guidelines.208

Figure 5.
  • Download figure
  • Open in new tab
  • Download powerpoint
Figure 5.

Center-specific PD-related peritonitis rates (incidence rate ratios) in Australia during the periods 2004–2008 (open triangles) and 2009–2013 (solid circles).

The key message from these studies is that although peritonitis rates are generally improving globally over time, there have been marked and unacceptable variations in peritonitis rates and outcomes between centers in many countries. This variation is explained to a large extent by variation in center practices, with poorer results generally being observed in units that deviate from evidence-based best practice recommendations (and not infrequently from their own unit policies).195 Key strategies for correcting this ubiquitous problem in PD include benchmarking of PD center peritonitis rates and outcomes through the establishment of national PD peritonitis registries within each country, alignment of PD practice in each center with clinical practice guidelines, strengthening of clinical governance within each unit, and adoption of a whole-of-unit approach to continuous quality improvement, including root cause analysis of all cases of peritonitis within each center to identify areas for improvement.200,208

Future Directions

Despite tremendous progress on multiple fronts, patients with ESRD carry a heavy burden of disease and treatment. We owe to the patients to continue to reconfigure health care delivery to better match dialysis modality to patients’ desires, improve the efficiency of therapy without putting a greater burden on patients, reduce cardiovascular risk, and better apply lessons learnt from research in clinical practice (Table 2).

View this table:
  • View inline
  • View popup
Table 2.

Important thematic areas in need of further research

Disclosures

S.J.D. has received research funding and speakers’ honoraria, and has participated in occasional advisory boards for Baxter Healthcare and Fresenius Medical Care. D.W.J. has previously received consultancy fees, research funds, speakers’ honoraria and travel sponsorships from Baxter Healthcare and Fresenius Medical Care.

Acknowledgments

Studies mentioned in this review were supported in part by the National Institutes of Health (R01DK99165), Fondation Saint-Luc at Universtie Catholique de Louvain, Baxter Extramural Grants, and the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique.

Footnotes

  • Published online ahead of print. Publication date available at www.jasn.org.

  • Copyright © 2016 by the American Society of Nephrology

References

  1. ↵
    1. Ganter G
    : Uber die Beseitigung giftiger Stoffe aus dem Blute durch Dialyse. Munch Med Wochenschr 70: 1478–1480, 1923
    OpenUrl
  2. ↵
    1. Wear JB,
    2. Sisk IR,
    3. Trinkle AJ
    : Peritoneal lavage in the treatment of uremia: an experimental and clinical study. J Urol 39: 53–62, 1938
    OpenUrl
    1. Frank HA,
    2. Seligman AM,
    3. Fine J
    : Treatment of uremia after acute renal failure by peritoneal irrigation. J Am Med Assoc 130: 703–705, 1946pmid:21016282
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Seligman AM,
    2. Frank HA,
    3. Fine J
    : Treatment of Experimental Uremia by Means of Peritoneal Irrigation. J Clin Invest 25: 211–219, 1946
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Frank HA,
    2. Seligman AM,
    3. Fine J
    : Further experiences with peritoneal irrigation for acuter renal failure including a description of modifications in method. Ann Surg 128: 561–608, 1948pmid:18889551
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Odel HM,
    2. Ferris DO,
    3. Power MH
    : Peritoneal lavage as an effective means of extrarenal excretion; a clinical appraisal. Am J Med 9: 63–77, 1950pmid:15425535
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Grollman A,
    2. Turner LB,
    3. McLEAN JA
    : Intermittent peritoneal lavage in nephrectomized dogs and its application to the human being. AMA Arch Intern Med 87: 379–390, 1951pmid:14810263
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Doolan PD,
    2. Murphy WP Jr,
    3. Wiggins RA,
    4. Carter NW,
    5. Cooper WC,
    6. Watten RH,
    7. Alpen EL
    : An evaluation of intermittent peritoneal lavage. Am J Med 26: 831–844, 1959pmid:13649709
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Maxwell MH,
    2. Rockney RE,
    3. Kleeman CR,
    4. Twiss MR
    : Peritoneal dialysis. 1. Technique and applications. J Am Med Assoc 170: 917–924, 1959pmid:13654040
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  3. ↵
    1. Boen ST,
    2. Mulinari AS,
    3. Dillard DH,
    4. Scribner BH
    : Periodic peritoneal dialysis in the management of chronic uremia. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 8: 256–262, 1962
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  4. ↵
    1. Tenckhoff H,
    2. Schechter H
    : A bacteriologically safe peritoneal access device. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 14: 181–187, 1968pmid:5701529
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Popovich RP,
    2. Moncrief JW,
    3. Decherd JB,
    4. Bomar JB,
    5. Pyle WK
    : The definition of a novel portable/wearable equilibrium peritoneal dialysis technique. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 5: 484–489, 1976
    OpenUrl
  5. ↵
    1. Oreopoulos DG,
    2. Robson M,
    3. Izatt S,
    4. Clayton S,
    5. deVeber GA
    : A simple and safe technique for continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 24: 484–489, 1978pmid:716044
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Maiorca R,
    2. Cantaluppi A,
    3. Cancarini GC,
    4. Scalamogna A,
    5. Broccoli R,
    6. Graziani G,
    7. Brasa S,
    8. Ponticelli C
    : Prospective controlled trial of a Y-connector and disinfectant to prevent peritonitis in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Lancet 2: 642–644, 1983pmid:6136794
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Buoncristiani U
    : Birth and evolution of the “Y” set. ASAIO J 42: 8–11, 1996pmid:8808449
    OpenUrlPubMed
  6. ↵
    1. Diaz-Buxo JA,
    2. Farmer CD,
    3. Walker PJ,
    4. Chandler JT,
    5. Holt KL
    : Continuous cyclic peritoneal dialysis: a preliminary report. Artif Organs 5: 157–161, 1981pmid:7271529
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  7. ↵
    1. Ahmad S,
    2. Gallagher N,
    3. Shen F
    : Intermittent peritoneal dialysis: status reassessed. Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs 25: 86–89, 1979pmid:524644
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Heimbürger O,
    2. Waniewski J,
    3. Werynski A,
    4. Tranaeus A,
    5. Lindholm B
    : Peritoneal transport in CAPD patients with permanent loss of ultrafiltration capacity. Kidney Int 38: 495–506, 1990pmid:2232493
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  8. ↵
    1. Bloembergen WE,
    2. Port FK,
    3. Mauger EA,
    4. Wolfe RA
    : A comparison of mortality between patients treated with hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 6: 177–183, 1995pmid:7579082
    OpenUrlAbstract
  9. ↵
    1. Mehrotra R
    : Peritoneal dialysis penetration in the United States: march toward the fringes? Perit Dial Int 26: 419–422, 2006pmid:16881333
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  10. ↵
    1. Jain AK,
    2. Blake P,
    3. Cordy P,
    4. Garg AX
    : Global trends in rates of peritoneal dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 23: 533–544, 2012pmid:22302194
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  11. ↵
    1. Mehrotra R,
    2. Kermah D,
    3. Fried L,
    4. Kalantar-Zadeh K,
    5. Khawar O,
    6. Norris K,
    7. Nissenson A
    : Chronic peritoneal dialysis in the United States: declining utilization despite improving outcomes. J Am Soc Nephrol 18: 2781–2788, 2007pmid:17804675
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  12. ↵
    1. Mehrotra R,
    2. Chiu YW,
    3. Kalantar-Zadeh K,
    4. Bargman J,
    5. Vonesh E
    : Similar outcomes with hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis in patients with end-stage renal disease. Arch Intern Med 171: 110–118, 2011pmid:20876398
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Chang YK,
    2. Hsu CC,
    3. Hwang SJ,
    4. Chen PC,
    5. Huang CC,
    6. Li TC,
    7. Sung FC
    : A comparative assessment of survival between propensity score-matched patients with peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis in Taiwan. Medicine (Baltimore) 91: 144–151, 2012pmid:22525667
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  13. ↵
    1. Yeates K,
    2. Zhu N,
    3. Vonesh E,
    4. Trpeski L,
    5. Blake P,
    6. Fenton S
    : Hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis are associated with similar outcomes for end-stage renal disease treatment in Canada. Nephrol Dial Transplant 27: 3568–3575, 2012pmid:22391139
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Heaf JG,
    2. Wehberg S
    : Relative survival of peritoneal dialysis and haemodialysis patients: effect of cohort and mode of dialysis initiation. PLoS One 9: e90119, 2014pmid:24614569
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Marshall MR,
    2. Polkinghorne KR,
    3. Kerr PG,
    4. Agar JW,
    5. Hawley CM,
    6. McDonald SP
    : Temporal Changes in Mortality Risk by Dialysis Modality in the Australian and New Zealand Dialysis Population. Am J Kidney Dis 66: 489–498, 2015pmid:25958081
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Ryu JH,
    2. Kim H,
    3. Kim KH,
    4. Hann HJ,
    5. Ahn HS,
    6. Lee S,
    7. Kim SJ,
    8. Kang DH,
    9. Choi KB,
    10. Ryu DR
    : Improving survival rate of Korean patients initiating dialysis. Yonsei Med J 56: 666–675, 2015pmid:25837171
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  14. ↵
    1. van de Luijtgaarden MW,
    2. Jager KJ,
    3. Segelmark M,
    4. Pascual J,
    5. Collart F,
    6. Hemke AC,
    7. Remon C,
    8. Metcalfe W,
    9. Miguel A,
    10. Kramar R,
    11. Aasarod K,
    12. Abu Hanna A,
    13. Krediet RT,
    14. Schon S,
    15. Ravani P,
    16. Caskey FJ,
    17. Couchoud C,
    18. Palsson R,
    19. Wanner C,
    20. Finne P,
    21. Noordzij M
    : Trends in dialysis modality choice and related patient survival in the ERA-EDTA Registry over a 20-year period. Nephrol Dial Transplant 31: 120–128, 2016pmid:26311215
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Quinn RR,
    2. Hux JE,
    3. Oliver MJ,
    4. Austin PC,
    5. Tonelli M,
    6. Laupacis A
    : Selection bias explains apparent differential mortality between dialysis modalities. J Am Soc Nephrol 22: 1534–1542, 2011pmid:21784891
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  15. ↵
    1. Weinhandl ED,
    2. Foley RN,
    3. Gilbertson DT,
    4. Arneson TJ,
    5. Snyder JJ,
    6. Collins AJ
    : Propensity-matched mortality comparison of incident hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 21: 499–506, 2010pmid:20133483
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  16. ↵
    1. Mehrotra R,
    2. Chiu YW,
    3. Kalantar-Zadeh K,
    4. Vonesh E
    : The outcomes of continuous ambulatory and automated peritoneal dialysis are similar. Kidney Int 76: 97–107, 2009pmid:19340090
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  17. ↵
    1. Karopadi AN,
    2. Mason G,
    3. Rettore E,
    4. Ronco C
    : Cost of peritoneal dialysis and haemodialysis across the world. Nephrol Dial Transplant 28: 2553–2569, 2013pmid:23737482
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  18. ↵
    1. Nissenson AR,
    2. Prichard SS,
    3. Cheng IK,
    4. Gokal R,
    5. Kubota M,
    6. Maiorca R,
    7. Riella MC,
    8. Rottembourg J,
    9. Stewart JH
    : Non-medical factors that impact on ESRD modality selection. Kidney Int Suppl 40: S120–S127, 1993pmid:8445833
    OpenUrlPubMed
  19. ↵
    1. Lameire N,
    2. Van Biesen W
    : Epidemiology of peritoneal dialysis: a story of believers and nonbelievers. Nat Rev Nephrol 6: 75–82, 2010pmid:20010897
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  20. ↵
    1. Liu FX,
    2. Gao X,
    3. Inglese G,
    4. Chuengsaman P,
    5. Pecoits-Filho R,
    6. Yu A
    : A Global Overview of the Impact of Peritoneal Dialysis First or Favored Policies: An Opinion. Perit Dial Int 35: 406–420, 2015pmid:25082840
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  21. ↵
    1. Sedor JR,
    2. Watnick S,
    3. Patel UD,
    4. Cheung A,
    5. Harmon W,
    6. Himmelfarb J,
    7. Hostetter TH,
    8. Inrig JK,
    9. Mehrotra R,
    10. Robinson E,
    11. Smedberg PC,
    12. Shaffer RN; American Society of Nephrology ESRD Task Force
    : ASN End-Stage Renal Disease Task Force: perspective on prospective payments for renal dialysis facilities. J Am Soc Nephrol 21: 1235–1237, 2010pmid:20675502
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  22. ↵
    1. Watnick S,
    2. Weiner DE,
    3. Shaffer R,
    4. Inrig J,
    5. Moe S,
    6. Mehrotra R; Dialysis Advisory Group of the American Society of Nephrology
    : Comparing mandated health care reforms: the Affordable Care Act, accountable care organizations, and the Medicare ESRD program. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 7: 1535–1543, 2012pmid:22626961
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  23. ↵
    1. Duong U,
    2. Kalantar-Zadeh K,
    3. Molnar MZ,
    4. Zaritsky JJ,
    5. Teitelbaum I,
    6. Kovesdy CP,
    7. Mehrotra R
    : Mortality associated with dose response of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents in hemodialysis versus peritoneal dialysis patients. Am J Nephrol 35: 198–208, 2012pmid:22286821
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  24. ↵
    1. Tantivess S,
    2. Werayingyong P,
    3. Chuengsaman P,
    4. Teerawattananon Y
    : Universal coverage of renal dialysis in Thailand: promise, progress, and prospects. BMJ 346: f462, 2013pmid:23369775
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  25. ↵
    1. Blake PG,
    2. Golper TA,
    3. Saxena AB
    : A critical shortage of solution threatens unprecedented growth in peritoneal dialysis. Nephrol News Issues 28: 14–16, 2014pmid:26016010
    OpenUrlPubMed
  26. ↵
    1. Mehrotra R,
    2. Marsh D,
    3. Vonesh E,
    4. Peters V,
    5. Nissenson A
    : Patient education and access of ESRD patients to renal replacement therapies beyond in-center hemodialysis. Kidney Int 68: 378–390, 2005pmid:15954930
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  27. ↵
    1. Kutner NG,
    2. Zhang R,
    3. Huang Y,
    4. Wasse H
    : Patient awareness and initiation of peritoneal dialysis. Arch Intern Med 171: 119–124, 2011pmid:20876396
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  28. ↵
    1. Manns BJ,
    2. Taub K,
    3. Vanderstraeten C,
    4. Jones H,
    5. Mills C,
    6. Visser M,
    7. McLaughlin K
    : The impact of education on chronic kidney disease patients’ plans to initiate dialysis with self-care dialysis: a randomized trial. Kidney Int 68: 1777–1783, 2005pmid:16164654
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Lacson E Jr,
    2. Wang W,
    3. DeVries C,
    4. Leste K,
    5. Hakim RM,
    6. Lazarus M,
    7. Pulliam J
    : Effects of a nationwide predialysis educational program on modality choice, vascular access, and patient outcomes. Am J Kidney Dis 58: 235–242, 2011pmid:21664016
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  29. ↵
    1. Rioux JP,
    2. Cheema H,
    3. Bargman JM,
    4. Watson D,
    5. Chan CT
    : Effect of an in-hospital chronic kidney disease education program among patients with unplanned urgent-start dialysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6: 799–804, 2011pmid:21212422
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  30. ↵
    1. Schmidt RJ,
    2. Domico JR,
    3. Sorkin MI,
    4. Hobbs G
    : Early referral and its impact on emergent first dialyses, health care costs, and outcome. Am J Kidney Dis 32: 278–283, 1998pmid:9708613
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  31. ↵
    1. Lameire N,
    2. Van Biesen W
    : The pattern of referral of patients with end-stage renal disease to the nephrologist--a European survey. Nephrol Dial Transplant 14[Suppl 6]: 16–23, 1999pmid:10528708
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  32. ↵
    1. Song JH,
    2. Kim GA,
    3. Lee SW,
    4. Kim MJ
    : Clinical outcomes of immediate full-volume exchange one year after peritoneal catheter implantation for CAPD. Perit Dial Int 20: 194–199, 2000pmid:10809243
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Banli O,
    2. Altun H,
    3. Oztemel A
    : Early start of CAPD with the Seldinger technique. Perit Dial Int 25: 556–559, 2005pmid:16411521
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Povlsen JV,
    2. Ivarsen P
    : How to start the late referred ESRD patient urgently on chronic APD. Nephrol Dial Transplant 21[Suppl 2]: ii56–ii59, 2006pmid:16825263
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Jo YI,
    2. Shin SK,
    3. Lee JH,
    4. Song JO,
    5. Park JH
    : Immediate initiation of CAPD following percutaneous catheter placement without break-in procedure. Perit Dial Int 27: 179–183, 2007pmid:17299155
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Lobbedez T,
    2. Lecouf A,
    3. Ficheux M,
    4. Henri P,
    5. Hurault de Ligny B,
    6. Ryckelynck JP
    : Is rapid initiation of peritoneal dialysis feasible in unplanned dialysis patients? A single-centre experience. Nephrol Dial Transplant 23: 3290–3294, 2008pmid:18424817
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Yang YF,
    2. Wang HJ,
    3. Yeh CC,
    4. Lin HH,
    5. Huang CC
    : Early initiation of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis in patients undergoing surgical implantation of Tenckhoff catheters. Perit Dial Int 31: 551–557, 2011pmid:20592099
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Ghaffari A
    : Urgent-start peritoneal dialysis: a quality improvement report. Am J Kidney Dis 59: 400–408, 2012pmid:22019332
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Koch M,
    2. Kohnle M,
    3. Trapp R,
    4. Haastert B,
    5. Rump LC,
    6. Aker S
    : Comparable outcome of acute unplanned peritoneal dialysis and haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 27: 375–380, 2012pmid:21622993
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  33. ↵
    1. Alkatheeri AM,
    2. Blake PG,
    3. Gray D,
    4. Jain AK
    : Success of Urgent-Start Peritoneal Dialysis in a Large Canadian Renal Program. Perit Dial Int 36: 171–176, 2016pmid:26374834
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  34. ↵
    1. Mehrotra R
    : Expanding access to peritoneal dialysis for incident dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 59: 330–332, 2012pmid:22340908
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  35. ↵
    1. Oliver MJ,
    2. Garg AX,
    3. Blake PG,
    4. Johnson JF,
    5. Verrelli M,
    6. Zacharias JM,
    7. Pandeya S,
    8. Quinn RR
    : Impact of contraindications, barriers to self-care and support on incident peritoneal dialysis utilization. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25: 2737–2744, 2010pmid:20189930
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  36. ↵
    1. Cheng CH,
    2. Shu KH,
    3. Chuang YW,
    4. Huang ST,
    5. Chou MC,
    6. Chang HR
    : Clinical outcome of elderly peritoneal dialysis patients with assisted care in a single medical centre: a 25 year experience. Nephrology (Carlton) 18: 468–473, 2013pmid:23590458
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  37. ↵
    1. Lobbedez T,
    2. Verger C,
    3. Ryckelynck JP,
    4. Fabre E,
    5. Evans D
    : Is assisted peritoneal dialysis associated with technique survival when competing events are considered? Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 7: 612–618, 2012pmid:22344506
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Béchade C,
    2. Lobbedez T,
    3. Ivarsen P,
    4. Povlsen JV
    : Assisted Peritoneal Dialysis for Older People with End-Stage Renal Disease: The French and Danish Experience. Perit Dial Int 35: 663–666, 2015pmid:26702010
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  38. ↵
    1. Oliver MJ,
    2. Quinn RR,
    3. Richardson EP,
    4. Kiss AJ,
    5. Lamping DL,
    6. Manns BJ
    : Home care assistance and the utilization of peritoneal dialysis. Kidney Int 71: 673–678, 2007pmid:17264874
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  39. ↵
    1. Verger C,
    2. Duman M,
    3. Durand PY,
    4. Veniez G,
    5. Fabre E,
    6. Ryckelynck JP
    : Influence of autonomy and type of home assistance on the prevention of peritonitis in assisted automated peritoneal dialysis patients. An analysis of data from the French Language Peritoneal Dialysis Registry. Nephrol Dial Transplant 22: 1218–1223, 2007pmid:17267540
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  40. ↵
    1. Iyasere OU,
    2. Brown EA,
    3. Johansson L,
    4. Huson L,
    5. Smee J,
    6. Maxwell AP,
    7. Farrington K,
    8. Davenport A
    : Quality of Life and Physical Function in Older Patients on Dialysis: A Comparison of Assisted Peritoneal Dialysis with Hemodialysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 423–430, 2015pmid:26712808
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  41. ↵
    1. Mehrotra R,
    2. Soohoo M,
    3. Rivara MB,
    4. Himmelfarb J,
    5. Cheung AK,
    6. Arah OA,
    7. Nissenson AR,
    8. Ravel V,
    9. Streja E,
    10. Kuttykrishnan S,
    11. Katz R,
    12. Molnar MZ,
    13. Kalantar-Zadeh K
    : Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Use of and Outcomes with Home Dialysis in the United States [published online ahead of print December 10, 2015]. J Am Soc Nephrol doi:10.1681/ASN.2015050472pmid:26657565
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  42. ↵
    1. Brimble KS,
    2. Walker M,
    3. Margetts PJ,
    4. Kundhal KK,
    5. Rabbat CG
    : Meta-analysis: peritoneal membrane transport, mortality, and technique failure in peritoneal dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 17: 2591–2598, 2006pmid:16885406
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  43. ↵
    1. Mehrotra R,
    2. Ravel V,
    3. Streja E,
    4. Kuttykrishnan S,
    5. Adams SV,
    6. Katz R,
    7. Molnar MZ,
    8. Kalantar-Zadeh K
    : Peritoneal Equilibration Test and Patient Outcomes. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 1990–2001, 2015pmid:26463882
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  44. ↵
    1. Devuyst O,
    2. Nielsen S,
    3. Cosyns JP,
    4. Smith BL,
    5. Agre P,
    6. Squifflet JP,
    7. Pouthier D,
    8. Goffin E
    : Aquaporin-1 and endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression in capillary endothelia of human peritoneum. Am J Physiol 275: H234–H242, 1998pmid:9688919
    OpenUrlPubMed
  45. ↵
    1. Agre P
    : Aquaporin water channels (Nobel Lecture). Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 43: 4278–4290, 2004pmid:15368374
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  46. ↵
    1. Morelle J,
    2. Sow A,
    3. Vertommen D,
    4. Jamar F,
    5. Rippe B,
    6. Devuyst O
    : Quantification of osmotic water transport in vivo using fluorescent albumin. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 307: F981–F989, 2014pmid:25100279
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  47. ↵
    1. Ni J,
    2. Verbavatz JM,
    3. Rippe A,
    4. Boisdé I,
    5. Moulin P,
    6. Rippe B,
    7. Verkman AS,
    8. Devuyst O
    : Aquaporin-1 plays an essential role in water permeability and ultrafiltration during peritoneal dialysis. Kidney Int 69: 1518–1525, 2006pmid:16508653
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  48. ↵
    1. Rippe B,
    2. Stelin G,
    3. Haraldsson B
    : Computer simulations of peritoneal fluid transport in CAPD. Kidney Int 40: 315–325, 1991pmid:1942781
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  49. ↵
    1. Stoenoiu MS,
    2. Ni J,
    3. Verkaeren C,
    4. Debaix H,
    5. Jonas JC,
    6. Lameire N,
    7. Verbavatz JM,
    8. Devuyst O
    : Corticosteroids induce expression of aquaporin-1 and increase transcellular water transport in rat peritoneum. J Am Soc Nephrol 14: 555–565, 2003pmid:12595490
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  50. ↵
    1. de Arteaga J,
    2. Ledesma F,
    3. Garay G,
    4. Chiurchiu C,
    5. de la Fuente J,
    6. Douthat W,
    7. Massari P,
    8. Terryn S,
    9. Devuyst O
    : High-dose steroid treatment increases free water transport in peritoneal dialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 26: 4142–4145, 2011pmid:21940485
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  51. ↵
    1. Yool AJ,
    2. Morelle J,
    3. Cnops Y,
    4. Verbavatz JM,
    5. Campbell EM,
    6. Beckett EA,
    7. Booker GW,
    8. Flynn G,
    9. Devuyst O
    : AqF026 is a pharmacologic agonist of the water channel aquaporin-1. J Am Soc Nephrol 24: 1045–1052, 2013pmid:23744886
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  52. ↵
    1. Oh KH,
    2. Jung JY,
    3. Yoon MO,
    4. Song A,
    5. Lee H,
    6. Ro H,
    7. Hwang YH,
    8. Kim DK,
    9. Margetts P,
    10. Ahn C
    : Intra-peritoneal interleukin-6 system is a potent determinant of the baseline peritoneal solute transport in incident peritoneal dialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25: 1639–1646, 2010pmid:20061317
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Pecoits-Filho R,
    2. Araújo MR,
    3. Lindholm B,
    4. Stenvinkel P,
    5. Abensur H,
    6. Romão JE Jr,
    7. Marcondes M,
    8. De Oliveira AH,
    9. Noronha IL
    : Plasma and dialysate IL-6 and VEGF concentrations are associated with high peritoneal solute transport rate. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17: 1480–1486, 2002pmid:12147798
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  53. ↵
    1. Lambie M,
    2. Chess J,
    3. Donovan KL,
    4. Kim YL,
    5. Do JY,
    6. Lee HB,
    7. Noh H,
    8. Williams PF,
    9. Williams AJ,
    10. Davison S,
    11. Dorval M,
    12. Summers A,
    13. Williams JD,
    14. Bankart J,
    15. Davies SJ,
    16. Topley N; Global Fluid Study Investigators
    : Independent effects of systemic and peritoneal inflammation on peritoneal dialysis survival. J Am Soc Nephrol 24: 2071–2080, 2013pmid:24009237
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  54. ↵
    1. Rumpsfeld M,
    2. McDonald SP,
    3. Johnson DW
    : Higher peritoneal transport status is associated with higher mortality and technique failure in the Australian and New Zealand peritoneal dialysis patient populations. J Am Soc Nephrol 17: 271–278, 2006pmid:16306167
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  55. ↵
    1. Gillerot G,
    2. Goffin E,
    3. Michel C,
    4. Evenepoel P,
    5. Biesen WV,
    6. Tintillier M,
    7. Stenvinkel P,
    8. Heimbürger O,
    9. Lindholm B,
    10. Nordfors L,
    11. Robert A,
    12. Devuyst O
    : Genetic and clinical factors influence the baseline permeability of the peritoneal membrane. Kidney Int 67: 2477–2487, 2005pmid:15882295
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  56. ↵
    1. Hwang YH,
    2. Son MJ,
    3. Yang J,
    4. Kim K,
    5. Chung W,
    6. Joo KW,
    7. Kim Y,
    8. Ahn C,
    9. Oh KH
    : Effects of interleukin-6 T15A single nucleotide polymorphism on baseline peritoneal solute transport rate in incident peritoneal dialysis patients. Perit Dial Int 29: 81–88, 2009pmid:19164257
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  57. ↵
    1. Combet S,
    2. Van Landschoot M,
    3. Moulin P,
    4. Piech A,
    5. Verbavatz JM,
    6. Goffin E,
    7. Balligand JL,
    8. Lameire N,
    9. Devuyst O
    : Regulation of aquaporin-1 and nitric oxide synthase isoforms in a rat model of acute peritonitis. J Am Soc Nephrol 10: 2185–2196, 1999pmid:10505696
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  58. ↵
    1. Ferrier ML,
    2. Combet S,
    3. van Landschoot M,
    4. Stoenoiu MS,
    5. Cnops Y,
    6. Lameire N,
    7. Devuyst O
    : Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase reverses changes in peritoneal permeability in a rat model of acute peritonitis. Kidney Int 60: 2343–2350, 2001pmid:11737609
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  59. ↵
    1. Ni J,
    2. Moulin P,
    3. Gianello P,
    4. Feron O,
    5. Balligand JL,
    6. Devuyst O
    : Mice that lack endothelial nitric oxide synthase are protected against functional and structural modifications induced by acute peritonitis. J Am Soc Nephrol 14: 3205–3216, 2003pmid:14638919
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  60. ↵
    1. Ni J,
    2. McLoughlin RM,
    3. Brodovitch A,
    4. Moulin P,
    5. Brouckaert P,
    6. Casadei B,
    7. Feron O,
    8. Topley N,
    9. Balligand JL,
    10. Devuyst O
    : Nitric oxide synthase isoforms play distinct roles during acute peritonitis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25: 86–96, 2010pmid:19706695
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  61. ↵
    1. Devuyst O,
    2. Margetts PJ,
    3. Topley N
    : The pathophysiology of the peritoneal membrane. J Am Soc Nephrol 21: 1077–1085, 2010pmid:20448020
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  62. ↵
    1. Morelle J,
    2. Sow A,
    3. Hautem N,
    4. Bouzin C,
    5. Crott R,
    6. Devuyst O,
    7. Goffin E
    : Interstitial Fibrosis Restricts Osmotic Water Transport in Encapsulating Peritoneal Sclerosis. J Am Soc Nephrol 26: 2521–2533, 2015pmid:25636412
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  63. ↵
    1. Korte MR,
    2. Sampimon DE,
    3. Betjes MG,
    4. Krediet RT
    : Encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis: the state of affairs. Nat Rev Nephrol 7: 528–538, 2011pmid:21808281
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  64. ↵
    1. Lambie ML,
    2. John B,
    3. Mushahar L,
    4. Huckvale C,
    5. Davies SJ
    : The peritoneal osmotic conductance is low well before the diagnosis of encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis is made. Kidney Int 78: 611–618, 2010pmid:20571473
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  65. ↵
    1. Sampimon DE,
    2. Barreto DL,
    3. Coester AM,
    4. Struijk DG,
    5. Krediet RT
    : The value of osmotic conductance and free water transport in the prediction of encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis. Adv Perit Dial 30: 21–26, 2014pmid:25338417
    OpenUrlPubMed
  66. ↵
    1. Williams JD,
    2. Craig KJ,
    3. Topley N,
    4. Von Ruhland C,
    5. Fallon M,
    6. Newman GR,
    7. Mackenzie RK,
    8. Williams GT; Peritoneal Biopsy Study Group
    : Morphologic changes in the peritoneal membrane of patients with renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 13: 470–479, 2002pmid:11805177
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  67. ↵
    1. Yang AH,
    2. Chen JY,
    3. Lin JK
    : Myofibroblastic conversion of mesothelial cells. Kidney Int 63: 1530–1539, 2003pmid:12631370
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Yáñez-Mó M,
    2. Lara-Pezzi E,
    3. Selgas R,
    4. Ramírez-Huesca M,
    5. Domínguez-Jiménez C,
    6. Jiménez-Heffernan JA,
    7. Aguilera A,
    8. Sánchez-Tomero JA,
    9. Bajo MA,
    10. Alvarez V,
    11. Castro MA,
    12. del Peso G,
    13. Cirujeda A,
    14. Gamallo C,
    15. Sánchez-Madrid F,
    16. López-Cabrera M
    : Peritoneal dialysis and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition of mesothelial cells. N Engl J Med 348: 403–413, 2003pmid:12556543
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Margetts PJ,
    2. Bonniaud P,
    3. Liu L,
    4. Hoff CM,
    5. Holmes CJ,
    6. West-Mays JA,
    7. Kelly MM
    : Transient overexpression of TGF-beta1 induces epithelial mesenchymal transition in the rodent peritoneum. J Am Soc Nephrol 16: 425–436, 2005pmid:15590759
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  68. ↵
    1. Aroeira LS,
    2. Aguilera A,
    3. Selgas R,
    4. Ramírez-Huesca M,
    5. Pérez-Lozano ML,
    6. Cirugeda A,
    7. Bajo MA,
    8. del Peso G,
    9. Sánchez-Tomero JA,
    10. Jiménez-Heffernan JA,
    11. López-Cabrera M
    : Mesenchymal conversion of mesothelial cells as a mechanism responsible for high solute transport rate in peritoneal dialysis: role of vascular endothelial growth factor. Am J Kidney Dis 46: 938–948, 2005pmid:16253736
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  69. ↵
    1. Humphreys BD,
    2. Lin SL,
    3. Kobayashi A,
    4. Hudson TE,
    5. Nowlin BT,
    6. Bonventre JV,
    7. Valerius MT,
    8. McMahon AP,
    9. Duffield JS
    : Fate tracing reveals the pericyte and not epithelial origin of myofibroblasts in kidney fibrosis. Am J Pathol 176: 85–97, 2010pmid:20008127
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Kriz W,
    2. Kaissling B,
    3. Le Hir M
    : Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in kidney fibrosis: fact or fantasy? J Clin Invest 121: 468–474, 2011pmid:21370523
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  70. ↵
    1. Quaggin SE,
    2. Kapus A
    : Scar wars: mapping the fate of epithelial-mesenchymal-myofibroblast transition. Kidney Int 80: 41–50, 2011pmid:21430641
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  71. ↵
    1. Chen YT,
    2. Chang YT,
    3. Pan SY,
    4. Chou YH,
    5. Chang FC,
    6. Yeh PY,
    7. Liu YH,
    8. Chiang WC,
    9. Chen YM,
    10. Wu KD,
    11. Tsai TJ,
    12. Duffield JS,
    13. Lin SL
    : Lineage tracing reveals distinctive fates for mesothelial cells and submesothelial fibroblasts during peritoneal injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 25: 2847–2858, 2014pmid:24854266
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  72. ↵
    1. García-López E,
    2. Lindholm B,
    3. Davies S
    : An update on peritoneal dialysis solutions. Nat Rev Nephrol 8: 224–233, 2012pmid:22349485
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  73. ↵
    1. Johnson DW,
    2. Brown FG,
    3. Clarke M,
    4. Boudville N,
    5. Elias TJ,
    6. Foo MW,
    7. Jones B,
    8. Kulkarni H,
    9. Langham R,
    10. Ranganathan D,
    11. Schollum J,
    12. Suranyi MG,
    13. Tan SH,
    14. Voss D; balANZ Trial Investigators
    : The effect of low glucose degradation product, neutral pH versus standard peritoneal dialysis solutions on peritoneal membrane function: the balANZ trial. Nephrol Dial Transplant 27: 4445–4453, 2012pmid:22859794
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  74. ↵
    1. Kolesnyk I,
    2. Noordzij M,
    3. Dekker FW,
    4. Boeschoten EW,
    5. Krediet RT
    : A positive effect of AII inhibitors on peritoneal membrane function in long-term PD patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 24: 272–277, 2009pmid:18676349
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  75. ↵
    1. Johnson DW,
    2. Dent H,
    3. Hawley CM,
    4. McDonald SP,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Brown FG,
    7. Bannister K,
    8. Wiggins KJ
    : Association of dialysis modality and cardiovascular mortality in incident dialysis patients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 4: 1620–1628, 2009pmid:19729428
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  76. ↵
    1. Isoyama N,
    2. Machowska A,
    3. Qureshi AR,
    4. Yamamoto T,
    5. Anderstam B,
    6. Heimburger O,
    7. Barany P,
    8. Stenvinkel P,
    9. Lindholm B
    : Elevated Circulating S100a12 Associates with Vascular Disease and Worse Clinical Outcome in Peritoneal Dialysis Patients. Perit Dial Int 36: 269–276, 2015pmid:26493750
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  77. ↵
    1. Boudville N,
    2. Kemp A,
    3. Clayton P,
    4. Lim W,
    5. Badve SV,
    6. Hawley CM,
    7. McDonald SP,
    8. Wiggins KJ,
    9. Bannister KM,
    10. Brown FG,
    11. Johnson DW
    : Recent peritonitis associates with mortality among patients treated with peritoneal dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 23: 1398–1405, 2012pmid:22626818
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  78. ↵
    1. Davies SJ,
    2. Phillips L,
    3. Griffiths AM,
    4. Russell LH,
    5. Naish PF,
    6. Russell GI
    : What really happens to people on long-term peritoneal dialysis? Kidney Int 54: 2207–2217, 1998pmid:9853287
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  79. ↵
    1. Kim H,
    2. Kim KH,
    3. Ahn SV,
    4. Kang SW,
    5. Yoo TH,
    6. Ahn HS,
    7. Hann HJ,
    8. Lee S,
    9. Ryu JH,
    10. Yu M,
    11. Kim SJ,
    12. Kang DH,
    13. Choi KB,
    14. Ryu DR
    : Risk of major cardiovascular events among incident dialysis patients: A Korean national population-based study. Int J Cardiol 198: 95–101, 2015pmid:26159246
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  80. ↵
    1. Wang AY,
    2. Brimble KS,
    3. Brunier G,
    4. Holt SG,
    5. Jha V,
    6. Johnson DW,
    7. Kang SW,
    8. Kooman JP,
    9. Lambie M,
    10. McIntyre C,
    11. Mehrotra R,
    12. Pecoits-Filho R
    : ISPD Cardiovascular and Metabolic Guidelines in Adult Peritoneal Dialysis Patients Part I - Assessment and Management of Various Cardiovascular Risk Factors. Perit Dial Int 35: 379–387, 2015pmid:26228782
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  81. ↵
    1. Wang AY,
    2. Brimble KS,
    3. Brunier G,
    4. Holt SG,
    5. Jha V,
    6. Johnson DW,
    7. Kang SW,
    8. Kooman JP,
    9. Lambie M,
    10. McIntyre C,
    11. Mehrotra R,
    12. Pecoits-Filho R
    : ISPD Cardiovascular and Metabolic Guidelines in Adult Peritoneal Dialysis Patients Part II - Management of Various Cardiovascular Complications. Perit Dial Int 35: 388–396, 2015pmid:26228783
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  82. ↵
    1. Little J,
    2. Phillips L,
    3. Russell L,
    4. Griffiths A,
    5. Russell GI,
    6. Davies SJ
    : Longitudinal lipid profiles on CAPD: their relationship to weight gain, comorbidity, and dialysis factors. J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 1931–1939, 1998pmid:9773795
    OpenUrlAbstract
    1. Attman PO,
    2. Samuelsson OG,
    3. Moberly J,
    4. Johansson AC,
    5. Ljungman S,
    6. Weiss LG,
    7. Knight-Gibson C,
    8. Alaupovic P
    : Apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins in renal failure: the relation to mode of dialysis. Kidney Int 55: 1536–1542, 1999pmid:10201020
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  83. de Moraes TP, Fortes PC, Ribeiro SC, Riella MC, Pecoits-Filho R: Comparative analysis of lipid and glucose metabolism biomarkers in non-diabetic hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients. J Bras Nefrol 33: 173–179, 2011.
  84. ↵
    1. Johnson DW,
    2. Armstrong K,
    3. Campbell SB,
    4. Mudge DW,
    5. Hawley CM,
    6. Coombes JS,
    7. Prins JB,
    8. Isbel NM
    : Metabolic syndrome in severe chronic kidney disease: Prevalence, predictors, prognostic significance and effects of risk factor modification. Nephrology (Carlton) 12: 391–398, 2007pmid:17635756
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Jiang N,
    2. Qian J,
    3. Lin A,
    4. Lindholm B,
    5. Axelsson J,
    6. Yao Q
    : Initiation of glucose-based peritoneal dialysis is associated with increased prevalence of metabolic syndrome in non-diabetic patients with end-stage renal disease. Blood Purif 26: 423–428, 2008pmid:18776721
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Szeto CC,
    2. Chow KM,
    3. Kwan BC,
    4. Chung KY,
    5. Leung CB,
    6. Li PK
    : New-onset hyperglycemia in nondiabetic chinese patients started on peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 49: 524–532, 2007pmid:17386320
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  85. ↵
    1. Choi SJ,
    2. Kim NR,
    3. Hong SA,
    4. Lee WB,
    5. Park MY,
    6. Kim JK,
    7. Hwang SD,
    8. Lee HK
    : Changes in body fat mass in patients after starting peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 31: 67–73, 2011pmid:20448238
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  86. ↵
    1. Lievense H,
    2. Kalantar-Zadeh K,
    3. Lukowsky LR,
    4. Molnar MZ,
    5. Duong U,
    6. Nissenson A,
    7. Krishnan M,
    8. Krediet R,
    9. Mehrotra R
    : Relationship of body size and initial dialysis modality on subsequent transplantation, mortality and weight gain of ESRD patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 27: 3631–3638, 2012pmid:22553372
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  87. ↵
    1. Ahmadi SF,
    2. Zahmatkesh G,
    3. Streja E,
    4. Mehrotra R,
    5. Rhee CM,
    6. Kovesdy CP,
    7. Gillen DL,
    8. Ahmadi E,
    9. Fonarow GC,
    10. Kalantar-Zadeh K
    : Association of Body Mass Index with Mortality in Peritoneal Dialysis Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Perit Dial Int 36: 315–325, 2016pmid:26475847
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  88. ↵
    1. Bergström J,
    2. Fürst P,
    3. Alvestrand A,
    4. Lindholm B
    : Protein and energy intake, nitrogen balance and nitrogen losses in patients treated with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Kidney Int 44: 1048–1057, 1993pmid:8264134
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  89. ↵
    Park J, Ahmadi SF, Streja E, Molnar MZ, Flegal KM, Gillen D, Kovesdy CP, Kalantar-Zadeh K: Obesity paradox in end-stage kidney disease patients. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 56: 415–425, 2014.
  90. ↵
    1. McDonald SP,
    2. Collins JF,
    3. Johnson DW
    : Obesity is associated with worse peritoneal dialysis outcomes in the Australia and New Zealand patient populations. J Am Soc Nephrol 14: 2894–2901, 2003pmid:14569099
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Fernandes NM,
    2. Bastos MG,
    3. Franco MR,
    4. Chaoubah A,
    5. Lima MG,
    6. Divino-Filho JC,
    7. Qureshi AR; Brazilian Peritoneal Dialysis Multicenter Study (BRAZPD) Group
    : Body size and longitudinal body weight changes do not increase mortality in incident peritoneal dialysis patients of the Brazilian peritoneal dialysis multicenter study. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 68: 51–58, 2013pmid:23420157
    OpenUrlPubMed
  91. ↵
    1. Badve SV,
    2. Paul SK,
    3. Klein K,
    4. Clayton PA,
    5. Hawley CM,
    6. Brown FG,
    7. Boudville N,
    8. Polkinghorne KR,
    9. McDonald SP,
    10. Johnson DW
    : The association between body mass index and mortality in incident dialysis patients. PLoS One 9: e114897, 2014pmid:25513810
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  92. ↵
    1. Liao CT,
    2. Kao TW,
    3. Chou YH,
    4. Wu MS,
    5. Chen YM,
    6. Chuang HF,
    7. Hung KY,
    8. Chu TS,
    9. Wu KD,
    10. Tsai TJ
    : Associations of metabolic syndrome and its components with cardiovascular outcomes among non-diabetic patients undergoing maintenance peritoneal dialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 26: 4047–4054, 2011pmid:21565947
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  93. ↵
    1. Szeto CC,
    2. Kwan BC,
    3. Chow KM,
    4. Leung CB,
    5. Cheng MS,
    6. Law MC,
    7. Li PK
    : Metabolic syndrome in peritoneal dialysis patients: choice of diagnostic criteria and prognostic implications. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 9: 779–787, 2014pmid:24458080
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  94. ↵
    1. Chou CY,
    2. Liang CC,
    3. Kuo HL,
    4. Chang CT,
    5. Liu JH,
    6. Lin HH,
    7. Wang IK,
    8. Yang YF,
    9. Huang CC
    : Comparing risk of new onset diabetes mellitus in chronic kidney disease patients receiving peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis using propensity score matching. PLoS One 9: e87891, 2014pmid:24504072
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  95. ↵
    1. Woodward RS,
    2. Schnitzler MA,
    3. Baty J,
    4. Lowell JA,
    5. Lopez-Rocafort L,
    6. Haider S,
    7. Woodworth TG,
    8. Brennan DC
    : Incidence and cost of new onset diabetes mellitus among U.S. wait-listed and transplanted renal allograft recipients. Am J Transplant 3: 590–598, 2003pmid:12752315
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  96. ↵
    1. Davies SJ,
    2. Woodrow G,
    3. Donovan K,
    4. Plum J,
    5. Williams P,
    6. Johansson AC,
    7. Bosselmann HP,
    8. Heimbürger O,
    9. Simonsen O,
    10. Davenport A,
    11. Tranaeus A,
    12. Divino Filho JC
    : Icodextrin improves the fluid status of peritoneal dialysis patients: results of a double-blind randomized controlled trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 14: 2338–2344, 2003pmid:12937311
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Wolfson M,
    2. Piraino B,
    3. Hamburger RJ,
    4. Morton AR; Icodextrin Study Group
    : A randomized controlled trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of icodextrin in peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 40: 1055–1065, 2002pmid:12407652
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  97. ↵
    1. de Moraes TP,
    2. Andreoli MC,
    3. Canziani ME,
    4. da Silva DR,
    5. Caramori JC,
    6. Ponce D,
    7. Cassi HV,
    8. de Andrade Bastos K,
    9. Rio DR,
    10. Pinto SW,
    11. Filho SR,
    12. de Campos LG,
    13. Olandoski M,
    14. Divino-Filho JC,
    15. Pecoits-Filho R
    : Icodextrin reduces insulin resistance in non-diabetic patients undergoing automated peritoneal dialysis: results of a randomized controlled trial (STARCH). Nephrol Dial Transplant 30: 1905–1911, 2015pmid:26063787
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  98. ↵
    1. Paniagua R,
    2. Ventura MD,
    3. Avila-Díaz M,
    4. Cisneros A,
    5. Vicenté-Martínez M,
    6. Furlong MD,
    7. García-González Z,
    8. Villanueva D,
    9. Orihuela O,
    10. Prado-Uribe MD,
    11. Alcántara G,
    12. Amato D
    : Icodextrin improves metabolic and fluid management in high and high-average transport diabetic patients. Perit Dial Int 29: 422–432, 2009pmid:19602608
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Li PK,
    2. Culleton BF,
    3. Ariza A,
    4. Do JY,
    5. Johnson DW,
    6. Sanabria M,
    7. Shockley TR,
    8. Story K,
    9. Vatazin A,
    10. Verrelli M,
    11. Yu AW,
    12. Bargman JM; IMPENDIA and EDEN Study Groups
    : Randomized, controlled trial of glucose-sparing peritoneal dialysis in diabetic patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 24: 1889–1900, 2013pmid:23949801
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  99. ↵
    1. Sniderman AD,
    2. Sloand JA,
    3. Li PK,
    4. Story K,
    5. Bargman JM
    : Influence of low-glucose peritoneal dialysis on serum lipids and apolipoproteins in the IMPENDIA/EDEN trials. J Clin Lipidol 8: 441–447, 2014pmid:25110226
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  100. ↵
    1. Duong U,
    2. Mehrotra R,
    3. Molnar MZ,
    4. Noori N,
    5. Kovesdy CP,
    6. Nissenson AR,
    7. Kalantar-Zadeh K
    : Glycemic control and survival in peritoneal dialysis patients with diabetes mellitus. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6: 1041–1048, 2011pmid:21511838
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  101. ↵
    1. Yoo DE,
    2. Park JT,
    3. Oh HJ,
    4. Kim SJ,
    5. Lee MJ,
    6. Shin DH,
    7. Han SH,
    8. Yoo TH,
    9. Choi KH,
    10. Kang SW
    : Good glycemic control is associated with better survival in diabetic patients on peritoneal dialysis: a prospective observational study. PLoS One 7: e30072, 2012pmid:22291903
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  102. ↵
    1. Palmer SC,
    2. Navaneethan SD,
    3. Craig JC,
    4. Johnson DW,
    5. Perkovic V,
    6. Nigwekar SU,
    7. Hegbrant J,
    8. Strippoli GF
    : HMG CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) for dialysis patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 9: CD004289, 2013pmid:24022428
    OpenUrlPubMed
  103. ↵
    1. Baigent C,
    2. Landray MJ,
    3. Reith C,
    4. Emberson J,
    5. Wheeler DC,
    6. Tomson C,
    7. Wanner C,
    8. Krane V,
    9. Cass A,
    10. Craig J,
    11. Neal B,
    12. Jiang L,
    13. Hooi LS,
    14. Levin A,
    15. Agodoa L,
    16. Gaziano M,
    17. Kasiske B,
    18. Walker R,
    19. Massy ZA,
    20. Feldt-Rasmussen B,
    21. Krairittichai U,
    22. Ophascharoensuk V,
    23. Fellström B,
    24. Holdaas H,
    25. Tesar V,
    26. Wiecek A,
    27. Grobbee D,
    28. de Zeeuw D,
    29. Grönhagen-Riska C,
    30. Dasgupta T,
    31. Lewis D,
    32. Herrington W,
    33. Mafham M,
    34. Majoni W,
    35. Wallendszus K,
    36. Grimm R,
    37. Pedersen T,
    38. Tobert J,
    39. Armitage J,
    40. Baxter A,
    41. Bray C,
    42. Chen Y,
    43. Chen Z,
    44. Hill M,
    45. Knott C,
    46. Parish S,
    47. Simpson D,
    48. Sleight P,
    49. Young A,
    50. Collins R; SHARP Investigators
    : The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with simvastatin plus ezetimibe in patients with chronic kidney disease (Study of Heart and Renal Protection): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 377: 2181–2192, 2011pmid:21663949
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  104. ↵
    1. Bargman JM,
    2. Thorpe KE,
    3. Churchill DN; CANUSA Peritoneal Dialysis Study Group
    : Relative contribution of residual renal function and peritoneal clearance to adequacy of dialysis: a reanalysis of the CANUSA study. J Am Soc Nephrol 12: 2158–2162, 2001pmid:11562415
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  105. ↵
    1. Termorshuizen F,
    2. Dekker FW,
    3. van Manen JG,
    4. Korevaar JC,
    5. Boeschoten EW,
    6. Krediet RT; NECOSAD Study Group
    : Relative contribution of residual renal function and different measures of adequacy to survival in hemodialysis patients: an analysis of the Netherlands Cooperative Study on the Adequacy of Dialysis (NECOSAD)-2. J Am Soc Nephrol 15: 1061–1070, 2004pmid:15034110
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  106. ↵
    1. Fernández-Lucas M,
    2. Teruel-Briones JL,
    3. Gomis-Couto A,
    4. Villacorta-Pérez J,
    5. Quereda-Rodríguez-Navarro C
    : Maintaining residual renal function in patients on haemodialysis: 5-year experience using a progressively increasing dialysis regimen. Nefrologia 32: 767–776, 2012pmid:23169359
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Lin YF,
    2. Huang JW,
    3. Wu MS,
    4. Chu TS,
    5. Lin SL,
    6. Chen YM,
    7. Tsai TJ,
    8. Wu KD
    : Comparison of residual renal function in patients undergoing twice-weekly versus three-times-weekly haemodialysis. Nephrology (Carlton) 14: 59–64, 2009pmid:19019171
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  107. ↵
    1. Seo EY,
    2. An SH,
    3. Cho JH,
    4. Suh HS,
    5. Park SH,
    6. Gwak H,
    7. Kim YL,
    8. Ha H
    : Effect of biocompatible peritoneal dialysis solution on residual renal function: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Perit Dial Int 34: 724–731, 2014pmid:25185015
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Kjaergaard KD,
    2. Peters CD,
    3. Jespersen B,
    4. Tietze IN,
    5. Madsen JK,
    6. Pedersen BB,
    7. Novosel MK,
    8. Laursen KS,
    9. Bibby BM,
    10. Strandhave C,
    11. Jensen JD
    : Angiotensin blockade and progressive loss of kidney function in hemodialysis patients: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Kidney Dis 64: 892–901, 2014pmid:25011693
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  108. ↵
    1. Jansen MA,
    2. Hart AA,
    3. Korevaar JC,
    4. Dekker FW,
    5. Boeschoten EW,
    6. Krediet RT; NECOSAD Study Group
    : Predictors of the rate of decline of residual renal function in incident dialysis patients. Kidney Int 62: 1046–1053, 2002pmid:12164889
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  109. ↵
    1. Moist LM,
    2. Port FK,
    3. Orzol SM,
    4. Young EW,
    5. Ostbye T,
    6. Wolfe RA,
    7. Hulbert-Shearon T,
    8. Jones CA,
    9. Bloembergen WE
    : Predictors of loss of residual renal function among new dialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 11: 556–564, 2000pmid:10703680
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  110. ↵
    1. van Biesen W,
    2. Claes K,
    3. Covic A,
    4. Fan S,
    5. Lichodziejewska-Niemierko M,
    6. Schoder V,
    7. Verger C,
    8. Wabel P
    : A multicentric, international matched pair analysis of body composition in peritoneal dialysis versus haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 28: 2620–2628, 2013pmid:24078645
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  111. ↵
    1. Ha IS,
    2. Yap HK,
    3. Munarriz RL,
    4. Zambrano PH,
    5. Flynn JT,
    6. Bilge I,
    7. Szczepanska M,
    8. Lai WM,
    9. Antonio ZL,
    10. Gulati A,
    11. Hooman N,
    12. van Hoeck K,
    13. Higuita LM,
    14. Verrina E,
    15. Klaus G,
    16. Fischbach M,
    17. Riyami MA,
    18. Sahpazova E,
    19. Sander A,
    20. Warady BA,
    21. Schaefer F; International Pediatric Peritoneal Dialysis Network Registry
    : Risk factors for loss of residual renal function in children treated with chronic peritoneal dialysis. Kidney Int 88: 605–613, 2015pmid:25874598
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  112. ↵
    1. Medcalf JF,
    2. Harris KP,
    3. Walls J
    : Role of diuretics in the preservation of residual renal function in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Kidney Int 59: 1128–1133, 2001pmid:11231370
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  113. ↵
    1. Johnson DW,
    2. Brown FG,
    3. Clarke M,
    4. Boudville N,
    5. Elias TJ,
    6. Foo MW,
    7. Jones B,
    8. Kulkarni H,
    9. Langham R,
    10. Ranganathan D,
    11. Schollum J,
    12. Suranyi M,
    13. Tan SH,
    14. Voss D; balANZ Trial Investigators
    : Effects of biocompatible versus standard fluid on peritoneal dialysis outcomes. J Am Soc Nephrol 23: 1097–1107, 2012pmid:22440906
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  114. ↵
    1. Cho Y,
    2. Johnson DW,
    3. Craig JC,
    4. Strippoli GF,
    5. Badve SV,
    6. Wiggins KJ
    : Biocompatible dialysis fluids for peritoneal dialysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3: CD007554, 2014pmid:24671928
    OpenUrlPubMed
  115. ↵
    1. Udayaraj UP,
    2. Steenkamp R,
    3. Caskey FJ,
    4. Rogers C,
    5. Nitsch D,
    6. Ansell D,
    7. Tomson CR
    : Blood pressure and mortality risk on peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 53: 70–78, 2009pmid:19027213
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  116. ↵
    1. Davies SJ,
    2. Davenport A
    : The role of bioimpedance and biomarkers in helping to aid clinical decision-making of volume assessments in dialysis patients. Kidney Int 86: 489–496, 2014pmid:24918155
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  117. ↵
    1. Brown EA,
    2. Davies SJ,
    3. Rutherford P,
    4. Meeus F,
    5. Borras M,
    6. Riegel W,
    7. Divino Filho JC,
    8. Vonesh E,
    9. van Bree M; EAPOS Group
    : Survival of functionally anuric patients on automated peritoneal dialysis: the European APD Outcome Study. J Am Soc Nephrol 14: 2948–2957, 2003pmid:14569106
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  118. ↵
    1. Jansen MA,
    2. Termorshuizen F,
    3. Korevaar JC,
    4. Dekker FW,
    5. Boeschoten E,
    6. Krediet RT; NECOSAD Study Group
    : Predictors of survival in anuric peritoneal dialysis patients. Kidney Int 68: 1199–1205, 2005pmid:16105051
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  119. ↵
    1. Johnson DW,
    2. Hawley CM,
    3. McDonald SP,
    4. Brown FG,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Wiggins KJ,
    7. Bannister KM,
    8. Badve SV
    : Superior survival of high transporters treated with automated versus continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25: 1973–1979, 2010pmid:20097847
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  120. ↵
    1. Cho Y,
    2. Johnson DW,
    3. Badve S,
    4. Craig JC,
    5. Strippoli GF,
    6. Wiggins KJ
    : Impact of icodextrin on clinical outcomes in peritoneal dialysis: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Nephrol Dial Transplant 28: 1899–1907, 2013pmid:23493329
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  121. ↵
    1. Mehrotra R,
    2. Duong U,
    3. Jiwakanon S,
    4. Kovesdy CP,
    5. Moran J,
    6. Kopple JD,
    7. Kalantar-Zadeh K
    : Serum albumin as a predictor of mortality in peritoneal dialysis: comparisons with hemodialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 58: 418–428, 2011pmid:21601335
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  122. ↵
    1. John B,
    2. Tan BK,
    3. Dainty S,
    4. Spanel P,
    5. Smith D,
    6. Davies SJ
    : Plasma volume, albumin, and fluid status in peritoneal dialysis patients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5: 1463–1470, 2010pmid:20538836
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  123. ↵
    1. Tan BK,
    2. Yu Z,
    3. Fang W,
    4. Lin A,
    5. Ni Z,
    6. Qian J,
    7. Woodrow G,
    8. Jenkins SB,
    9. Wilkie ME,
    10. Davies SJ
    : Longitudinal bioimpedance vector plots add little value to fluid management of peritoneal dialysis patients. Kidney Int 89: 487–497, 2016pmid:26466321
    OpenUrlPubMed
  124. ↵
    1. Cho Y,
    2. Johnson DW
    : Peritoneal dialysis-related peritonitis: towards improving evidence, practices, and outcomes. Am J Kidney Dis 64: 278–289, 2014pmid:24751170
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  125. ↵
    1. Johnson DW,
    2. Dent H,
    3. Hawley CM,
    4. McDonald SP,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Brown FG,
    7. Bannister KM,
    8. Wiggins KJ
    : Associations of dialysis modality and infectious mortality in incident dialysis patients in Australia and New Zealand. Am J Kidney Dis 53: 290–297, 2009pmid:18805609
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  126. ↵
    1. Szeto CC,
    2. Wong TY,
    3. Chow KM,
    4. Leung CB,
    5. Li PK
    : The clinical course of culture-negative peritonitis complicating peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 42: 567–574, 2003pmid:12955686
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Szeto CC,
    2. Chow KM,
    3. Kwan BC,
    4. Law MC,
    5. Chung KY,
    6. Yu S,
    7. Leung CB,
    8. Li PK
    : Staphylococcus aureus peritonitis complicates peritoneal dialysis: review of 245 consecutive cases. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2: 245–251, 2007pmid:17699420
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Szeto CC,
    2. Kwan BC,
    3. Chow KM,
    4. Lau MF,
    5. Law MC,
    6. Chung KY,
    7. Leung CB,
    8. Li PK
    : Coagulase negative staphylococcal peritonitis in peritoneal dialysis patients: review of 232 consecutive cases. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 3: 91–97, 2008pmid:18032790
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Barraclough K,
    2. Hawley CM,
    3. McDonald SP,
    4. Brown FG,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Wiggins KJ,
    7. Bannister KM,
    8. Johnson DW
    : Corynebacterium peritonitis in Australian peritoneal dialysis patients: predictors, treatment and outcomes in 82 cases. Nephrol Dial Transplant 24: 3834–3839, 2009pmid:19574339
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Fahim M,
    2. Hawley CM,
    3. McDonald SP,
    4. Brown FG,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Wiggins KJ,
    7. Bannister KM,
    8. Johnson DW
    : Culture-negative peritonitis in peritoneal dialysis patients in Australia: predictors, treatment, and outcomes in 435 cases. Am J Kidney Dis 55: 690–697, 2010pmid:20110144
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Miles R,
    2. Hawley CM,
    3. McDonald SP,
    4. Brown FG,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Wiggins KJ,
    7. Bannister KM,
    8. Johnson DW
    : Predictors and outcomes of fungal peritonitis in peritoneal dialysis patients. Kidney Int 76: 622–628, 2009pmid:19516241
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Barraclough K,
    2. Hawley CM,
    3. McDonald SP,
    4. Brown FG,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Wiggins KJ,
    7. Bannister KM,
    8. Johnson DW
    : Polymicrobial peritonitis in peritoneal dialysis patients in Australia: predictors, treatment, and outcomes. Am J Kidney Dis 55: 121–131, 2010pmid:19932543
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Edey M,
    2. Hawley CM,
    3. McDonald SP,
    4. Brown FG,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Wiggins KJ,
    7. Bannister KM,
    8. Johnson DW
    : Enterococcal peritonitis in Australian peritoneal dialysis patients: predictors, treatment and outcomes in 116 cases. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25: 1272–1278, 2010pmid:19948875
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Fahim M,
    2. Hawley CM,
    3. McDonald SP,
    4. Brown FG,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Wiggins KJ,
    7. Bannister KM,
    8. Johnson DW
    : Coagulase-negative staphylococcal peritonitis in Australian peritoneal dialysis patients: predictors, treatment and outcomes in 936 cases. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25: 3386–3392, 2010pmid:20466663
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Govindarajulu S,
    2. Hawley CM,
    3. McDonald SP,
    4. Brown FG,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Wiggins KJ,
    7. Bannister KM,
    8. Johnson DW
    : Staphylococcus aureus peritonitis in Australian peritoneal dialysis patients: predictors, treatment, and outcomes in 503 cases. Perit Dial Int 30: 311–319, 2010pmid:20190031
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Jarvis EM,
    2. Hawley CM,
    3. McDonald SP,
    4. Brown FG,
    5. Rosman JB,
    6. Wiggins KJ,
    7. Bannister KM,
    8. Johnson DW
    : Predictors, treatment, and outcomes of non-Pseudomonas Gram-negative peritonitis. Kidney Int 78: 408–414, 2010pmid:20505659
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  127. ↵
    1. Ghali JR,
    2. Bannister KM,
    3. Brown FG,
    4. Rosman JB,
    5. Wiggins KJ,
    6. Johnson DW,
    7. McDonald SP
    : Microbiology and outcomes of peritonitis in Australian peritoneal dialysis patients. Perit Dial Int 31: 651–662, 2011pmid:21719685
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  128. ↵
    1. Brown MC,
    2. Simpson K,
    3. Kerssens JJ,
    4. Mactier RA; Scottish Renal Registry
    : Encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis in the new millennium: a national cohort study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 4: 1222–1229, 2009pmid:19541815
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  129. ↵
    1. Johnson DW,
    2. Cho Y,
    3. Livingston BE,
    4. Hawley CM,
    5. McDonald SP,
    6. Brown FG,
    7. Rosman JB,
    8. Bannister KM,
    9. Wiggins KJ
    : Encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis: incidence, predictors, and outcomes. Kidney Int 77: 904–912, 2010pmid:20375981
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  130. ↵
    1. Howard K,
    2. Hayes A,
    3. Cho Y,
    4. Cass A,
    5. Clarke M,
    6. Johnson DW
    : Economic evaluation of neutral-pH, low-glucose degradation product peritoneal dialysis solutions compared with standard solutions: a secondary analysis of the balANZ Trial. Am J Kidney Dis 65: 773–779, 2015pmid:25746151
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  131. ↵
    1. Morton RL,
    2. Snelling P,
    3. Webster AC,
    4. Rose J,
    5. Masterson R,
    6. Johnson DW,
    7. Howard K
    : Dialysis modality preference of patients with CKD and family caregivers: a discrete-choice study. Am J Kidney Dis 60: 102–111, 2012pmid:22417786
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  132. ↵
    1. Campbell DJ,
    2. Johnson DW,
    3. Mudge DW,
    4. Gallagher MP,
    5. Craig JC
    : Prevention of peritoneal dialysis-related infections. Nephrol Dial Transplant 30: 1461–1472, 2015pmid:25294849
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  133. ↵
    1. Huang JW,
    2. Hung KY,
    3. Yen CJ,
    4. Wu KD,
    5. Tsai TJ
    : Comparison of infectious complications in peritoneal dialysis patients using either a twin-bag system or automated peritoneal dialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 16: 604–607, 2001pmid:11239039
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Han SH,
    2. Lee SC,
    3. Ahn SV,
    4. Lee JE,
    5. Choi HY,
    6. Kim BS,
    7. Kang SW,
    8. Choi KH,
    9. Han DS,
    10. Lee HY
    : Improving outcome of CAPD: twenty-five years’ experience in a single Korean center. Perit Dial Int 27: 432–440, 2007pmid:17602152
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Moraes TP,
    2. Pecoits-Filho R,
    3. Ribeiro SC,
    4. Rigo M,
    5. Silva MM,
    6. Teixeira PS,
    7. Pasqual DD,
    8. Fuerbringer R,
    9. Riella MC
    : Peritoneal dialysis in Brazil: twenty-five years of experience in a single center. Perit Dial Int 29: 492–498, 2009pmid:19776039
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Huang ST,
    2. Chuang YW,
    3. Cheng CH,
    4. Wu MJ,
    5. Chen CH,
    6. Yu TM,
    7. Shu KH
    : Evolution of microbiological trends and treatment outcomes in peritoneal dialysis-related peritonitis. Clin Nephrol 75: 416–425, 2011pmid:21543021
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Rocha A,
    2. Rodrigues A,
    3. Teixeira L,
    4. Carvalho MJ,
    5. Mendonça D,
    6. Cabrita A
    : Temporal trends in peritonitis rates, microbiology and outcomes: the major clinical complication of peritoneal dialysis. Blood Purif 33: 284–291, 2012pmid:22572743
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  134. ↵
    1. Ozisik L,
    2. Ozdemir FN,
    3. Tanriover MD
    : The changing trends of peritoneal dialysis related peritonitis and novel risk factors. Ren Fail 37: 1027–1032, 2015pmid:26042343
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  135. ↵
    1. Kiernan L,
    2. Kliger A,
    3. Gorban-Brennan N,
    4. Juergensen P,
    5. Tesin D,
    6. Vonesh E,
    7. Finkelstein F
    : Comparison of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis-related infections with different “Y-tubing” exchange systems. J Am Soc Nephrol 5: 1835–1838, 1995pmid:7787152
    OpenUrlAbstract
    1. Lo WK,
    2. Chan CY,
    3. Cheng SW,
    4. Poon JF,
    5. Chan DT,
    6. Cheng IK
    : A prospective randomized control study of oral nystatin prophylaxis for Candida peritonitis complicating continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 28: 549–552, 1996pmid:8840945
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Thodis E,
    2. Bhaskaran S,
    3. Pasadakis P,
    4. Bargman JM,
    5. Vas SI,
    6. Oreopoulos DG
    : Decrease in Staphylococcus aureus exit-site infections and peritonitis in CAPD patients by local application of mupirocin ointment at the catheter exit site. Perit Dial Int 18: 261–270, 1998pmid:9663889
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Bernardini J,
    2. Bender F,
    3. Florio T,
    4. Sloand J,
    5. Palmmontalbano L,
    6. Fried L,
    7. Piraino B
    : Randomized, double-blind trial of antibiotic exit site cream for prevention of exit site infection in peritoneal dialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 16: 539–545, 2005pmid:15625071
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Troidle L,
    2. Finkelstein F
    : Treatment and outcome of CPD-associated peritonitis. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 5: 6, 2006pmid:16600033
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Gadola L,
    2. Poggi C,
    3. Poggio M,
    4. Sáez L,
    5. Ferrari A,
    6. Romero J,
    7. Fumero S,
    8. Ghelfi G,
    9. Chifflet L,
    10. Borges PL
    : Using a multidisciplinary training program to reduce peritonitis in peritoneal dialysis patients. Perit Dial Int 33: 38–45, 2013pmid:22753455
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  136. ↵
    1. Zhang L,
    2. Hawley CM,
    3. Johnson DW
    : Focus on peritoneal dialysis training: working to decrease peritonitis rates. Nephrol Dial Transplant 31: 214–222, 2016pmid:26908816
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  137. ↵
    1. Schaepe C,
    2. Bergjan M
    : Educational interventions in peritoneal dialysis: a narrative review of the literature. Int J Nurs Stud 52: 882–898, 2015pmid:25616708
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  138. ↵
    1. Registry ANZDATA
    : 37th Report, Chapter 5, Adelaide, Australia, Peritoneal Dialysis, Australia and New Zealand Dialysis and Transplant Registry, 2015
  139. ↵
    1. Jose MD,
    2. Johnson DW,
    3. Mudge DW,
    4. Tranaeus A,
    5. Voss D,
    6. Walker R,
    7. Bannister KM
    : Peritoneal dialysis practice in Australia and New Zealand: a call to action. Nephrology (Carlton) 16: 19–29, 2011pmid:21175973
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Johnson DW,
    2. Badve SV,
    3. Pascoe EM,
    4. Beller E,
    5. Cass A,
    6. Clark C,
    7. de Zoysa J,
    8. Isbel NM,
    9. McTaggart S,
    10. Morrish AT,
    11. Playford EG,
    12. Scaria A,
    13. Snelling P,
    14. Vergara LA,
    15. Hawley CM; HONEYPOT Study Collaborative Group
    : Antibacterial honey for the prevention of peritoneal-dialysis-related infections (HONEYPOT): a randomised trial. Lancet Infect Dis 14: 23–30, 2014pmid:24119840
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Campbell DJ,
    2. Brown FG,
    3. Craig JC,
    4. Gallagher MP,
    5. Johnson DW,
    6. Kirkland GS,
    7. Kumar SK,
    8. Lim WH,
    9. Ranganathan D,
    10. Saweirs W,
    11. Sud K,
    12. Toussaint ND,
    13. Walker RG,
    14. Williams LA,
    15. Yehia M,
    16. Mudge DW
    : Assessment of current practice and barriers to antimicrobial prophylaxis in peritoneal dialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 31: 619–627, 2016pmid:24842822
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Walker A,
    2. Bannister K,
    3. George C,
    4. Mudge D,
    5. Yehia M,
    6. Lonergan M,
    7. Chow J
    : KHA-CARI Guideline: peritonitis treatment and prophylaxis. Nephrology (Carlton) 19: 69–71, 2014pmid:23944845
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  140. ↵
    1. Zhang L,
    2. Badve SV,
    3. Pascoe EM,
    4. Beller E,
    5. Cass A,
    6. Clark C,
    7. De Zoysa J,
    8. Isbel NM,
    9. McTaggart S,
    10. Morrish AT,
    11. Playford EG,
    12. Scaria A,
    13. Snelling P,
    14. Vergara LA,
    15. Hawley CM,
    16. Johnson DW, Honeypot Study Collaborative
    : Microbiological results of the HONEYPOT study - secondary analysis of a randomised, controlled trial of exit site application of medihoney for the prevention of catheter-associated infections in PD patients. Nephrology (Carlton) 19: 30, 2014
    OpenUrl
  141. ↵
    1. Piraino B,
    2. Bernardini J,
    3. Brown E,
    4. Figueiredo A,
    5. Johnson DW,
    6. Lye WC,
    7. Price V,
    8. Ramalakshmi S,
    9. Szeto CC
    : ISPD position statement on reducing the risks of peritoneal dialysis-related infections. Perit Dial Int 31: 614–630, 2011pmid:21880990
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  142. ↵
    1. Kopriva-Altfahrt G,
    2. König P,
    3. Mündle M,
    4. Prischl F,
    5. Roob JM,
    6. Wiesholzer M,
    7. Vychytil A,
    8. Arneitz K,
    9. Karner A,
    10. Artes R,
    11. Wolf E,
    12. Auinger M,
    13. Pawlak A,
    14. Fraberger J,
    15. Hofbauer S,
    16. Galvan G,
    17. Salmhofer H,
    18. Pichler B,
    19. Wazel M,
    20. Gruber M,
    21. Thonhofer A,
    22. Hager A,
    23. Malajner S,
    24. Heiss S,
    25. Braunsteiner T,
    26. Zweiffler M,
    27. König P,
    28. Rudnicki M,
    29. Kogler R,
    30. Kohlhauser D,
    31. Wiesinger T,
    32. Kopriva-Altfahrt G,
    33. Moser E,
    34. Kotanko P,
    35. Loibner H,
    36. Nitz H,
    37. Miska HJ,
    38. Wenzel R,
    39. Wölfer M,
    40. Mündle M,
    41. Breuss H,
    42. Hölzl B,
    43. Prischi F,
    44. Schmekal B,
    45. Riener EM,
    46. Roob JM,
    47. Wonisch W,
    48. Vikydal R,
    49. Vychytil A,
    50. Frank B,
    51. Wieser C,
    52. Wiesholzer M,
    53. Pokorny K; Austrian Study Group for Prevention of Peritoneal Catheter-Associated Infections
    : Exit-site care in Austrian peritoneal dialysis centers -- a nationwide survey. Perit Dial Int 29: 330–339, 2009pmid:19458307
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  143. ↵
    1. Kavanagh D,
    2. Prescott GJ,
    3. Mactier RA
    : Peritoneal dialysis-associated peritonitis in Scotland (1999-2002). Nephrol Dial Transplant 19: 2584–2591, 2004pmid:15304559
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  144. ↵
    1. Davenport A
    : Peritonitis remains the major clinical complication of peritoneal dialysis: the London, UK, peritonitis audit 2002-2003. Perit Dial Int 29: 297–302, 2009pmid:19458302
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  145. ↵
    1. Martin LC,
    2. Caramori JC,
    3. Fernandes N,
    4. Divino-Filho JC,
    5. Pecoits-Filho R,
    6. Barretti P; Brazilian Peritoneal Dialysis Multicenter Study BRAZPD Group
    : Geographic and educational factors and risk of the first peritonitis episode in Brazilian Peritoneal Dialysis study (BRAZPD) patients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6: 1944–1951, 2011pmid:21737854
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  146. ↵
    1. Figueiredo AE,
    2. Moraes TP,
    3. Bernardini J,
    4. Poli-de-Figueiredo CE,
    5. Barretti P,
    6. Olandoski M,
    7. Pecoits-Filho R; BRAZPD Investigators
    : Impact of patient training patterns on peritonitis rates in a large national cohort study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 30: 137–142, 2015pmid:25204318
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  147. ↵
    1. Badve SV,
    2. Smith A,
    3. Hawley CM,
    4. Johnson DW
    : Adherence to guideline recommendations for infection prophylaxis in peritoneal dialysis patients. NDT Plus 2: 508, 2009pmid:25949395
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  148. ↵
    1. Nadeau-Fredette AC,
    2. Johnson DW,
    3. Hawley CM,
    4. Pascoe E,
    5. Cho Y,
    6. Clayton PA,
    7. Borlace M,
    8. Badve SV,
    9. Sud K,
    10. Boudville N,
    11. McDonald SP
    : Centre-specific factors associated with peritonitis risk - a multi-center registry analysis [published online ahead of print, January 13, 2016. Perit Dial Int doi:10.3747/pdi.2015.00146
  149. ↵
    1. Li PK,
    2. Szeto CC,
    3. Piraino B,
    4. Bernardini J,
    5. Figueiredo AE,
    6. Gupta A,
    7. Johnson DW,
    8. Kuijper EJ,
    9. Lye WC,
    10. Salzer W,
    11. Schaefer F,
    12. Struijk DG; International Society for Peritoneal Dialysis
    : Peritoneal dialysis-related infections recommendations: 2010 update. Perit Dial Int 30: 393–423, 2010pmid:20628102
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
PreviousNext
Back to top

In this issue

Journal of the American Society of Nephrology: 27 (11)
Journal of the American Society of Nephrology
Vol. 27, Issue 11
November 2016
  • Table of Contents
  • Table of Contents (PDF)
  • About the Cover
  • Index by author
View Selected Citations (0)
Print
Download PDF
Sign up for Alerts
Email Article
Thank you for your help in sharing the high-quality science in JASN.
Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas.
The Current State of Peritoneal Dialysis
(Your Name) has sent you a message from American Society of Nephrology
(Your Name) thought you would like to see the American Society of Nephrology web site.
CAPTCHA
This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions.
Citation Tools
The Current State of Peritoneal Dialysis
Rajnish Mehrotra, Olivier Devuyst, Simon J. Davies, David W. Johnson
JASN Nov 2016, 27 (11) 3238-3252; DOI: 10.1681/ASN.2016010112

Citation Manager Formats

  • BibTeX
  • Bookends
  • EasyBib
  • EndNote (tagged)
  • EndNote 8 (xml)
  • Medlars
  • Mendeley
  • Papers
  • RefWorks Tagged
  • Ref Manager
  • RIS
  • Zotero
Request Permissions
Share
The Current State of Peritoneal Dialysis
Rajnish Mehrotra, Olivier Devuyst, Simon J. Davies, David W. Johnson
JASN Nov 2016, 27 (11) 3238-3252; DOI: 10.1681/ASN.2016010112
del.icio.us logo Digg logo Reddit logo Twitter logo CiteULike logo Facebook logo Google logo Mendeley logo
  • Tweet Widget
  • Facebook Like

Jump to section

  • Article
    • Abstract
    • Utilization and Outcomes with PD
    • Improved Understanding of Peritoneal Physiology and Pathophysiology
    • Cardiovascular Risk Modification in PD Patients
    • Peritonitis
    • Future Directions
    • Disclosures
    • Acknowledgments
    • Footnotes
    • References
  • Figures & Data Supps
  • Info & Metrics
  • View PDF

More in this TOC Section

Up Front Matters

  • Ensuring the Equitable Advancement of American Kidney Health—the Need to Account for Socioeconomic Disparities in the ESRD Treatment Choices Model
  • New ‘Antigens’ in Membranous Nephropathy
  • Animal Model of Pregnancy after Acute Kidney Injury Mirrors the Human Observations
Show more Up Front Matters

Brief Reviews

  • The UMOD Locus: Insights into the Pathogenesis and Prognosis of Kidney Disease
  • Differentiating Primary, Genetic, and Secondary FSGS in Adults: A Clinicopathologic Approach
  • Salt-Losing Tubulopathies in Children: What’s New, What’s Controversial?
Show more Brief Reviews

Cited By...

  • Optimizing Peritoneal Dialysis-Associated Peritonitis Prevention in the United States: From Standardized Peritoneal Dialysis-Associated Peritonitis Reporting and Beyond
  • Strategies to Reduce Rehospitalization in Patients with CKD and Kidney Failure
  • A Systematic Review and Jurisdictional Scan of the Evidence Characterizing and Evaluating Assisted Peritoneal Dialysis Models
  • Remote Treatment Monitoring on Hospitalization and Technique Failure Rates in Peritoneal Dialysis Patients
  • The Impact of Frailty on Technique Failure and Mortality in Patients on Home Dialysis
  • Removal of Protein-Bound Uremic Toxins by Liposome-Supported Peritoneal Dialysis
  • Peritoneal Dialysis Patient Outcomes under the Medicare Expanded Dialysis Prospective Payment System
  • Are ISPD Guidelines on Peritonitis Diagnosis Too Narrow? A 15-Year Retrospective Single-Center Cohort Study on PD-Associated Peritonitis Accounting for Untrained Patients
  • Computer Simulations of Continuous Flow Peritoneal Dialysis Using the 3-Pore Model--A First Experience
  • Risk Factors And Prevention of Peritoneal Dialysis-Related Peritonitis
  • Biocompatible Solutions and Long-Term Changes in Peritoneal Solute Transport
  • Early Peritoneal Dialysis Technique Failure: Review
  • Increasing Staphylococcus Species Resistance in Peritoneal Dialysis-Related Peritonitis over a 10-Year Period in a Single Taiwanese Center
  • Outcomes of Acinetobacter Peritonitis in Peritoneal Dialysis Patients: A Multicenter Registry Analysis
  • Impact of the pretransplant dialysis modality on kidney transplantation outcomes: a nationwide cohort study
  • Effects of Alanyl-Glutamine Treatment on the Peritoneal Dialysis Effluent Proteome Reveal Pathomechanism-Associated Molecular Signatures
  • Practice of Peritoneal Dialysis Catheter Flushing in Australia and New Zealand: Multi-Center Cross-Sectional Survey
  • Complement Activation in Peritoneal Dialysis-Induced Arteriolopathy
  • Multicenter Registry Analysis of Center Characteristics Associated with Technique Failure in Patients on Incident Peritoneal Dialysis
  • Are Peritoneal Dialysis Center Characteristics a Modifiable Risk Factor to Improve Peritoneal Dialysis Outcomes?
  • The NLRP3 Inflammasome Has a Critical Role in Peritoneal Dialysis-Related Peritonitis
  • Health policies on dialysis modality selection: a nationwide population cohort study
  • Google Scholar

Similar Articles

Related Articles

  • No related articles found.
  • PubMed
  • Google Scholar

Keywords

  • peritoneal membrane
  • peritoneal dialysis
  • end-stage renal disease
  • cardiovascular disease
  • Life-threatening dialysis complications

Articles

  • Current Issue
  • Early Access
  • Subject Collections
  • Article Archive
  • ASN Annual Meeting Abstracts

Information for Authors

  • Submit a Manuscript
  • Author Resources
  • Editorial Fellowship Program
  • ASN Journal Policies
  • Reuse/Reprint Policy

About

  • JASN
  • ASN
  • ASN Journals
  • ASN Kidney News

Journal Information

  • About JASN
  • JASN Email Alerts
  • JASN Key Impact Information
  • JASN Podcasts
  • JASN RSS Feeds
  • Editorial Board

More Information

  • Advertise
  • ASN Podcasts
  • ASN Publications
  • Become an ASN Member
  • Feedback
  • Follow on Twitter
  • Password/Email Address Changes
  • Subscribe

© 2021 American Society of Nephrology

Print ISSN - 1046-6673 Online ISSN - 1533-3450

Powered by HighWire